Computer NetworksCSMA/CD

CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

LevelIntermediate

Duration60 mins

TopicCSMA/CD

1 / 5

Collision Detection — The Foundation of CSMA/CD

The Moment of Impact

Imagine a busy conference room where multiple people try to speak at once. The result is chaos—overlapping voices, unintelligible words, and frustrated participants. Someone needs to recognize that a collision has occurred before any productive conversation can resume.

In computer networking, when multiple stations on a shared medium transmit simultaneously, their electrical signals interfere with each other, creating what we call a collision. But unlike human conversations where we naturally sense overlapping speech, electronic systems need a deliberate mechanism to detect these collisions. This is where Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) enters the picture—a protocol that transformed early Ethernet from chaotic shared-wire networks into the reliable LANs we depend on today.

What You Will Learn

By the end of this page, you will understand precisely how collision detection works at the physical and electrical level, why it was revolutionary for LAN technology, and how stations differentiate between normal transmissions and collisions. You'll master the timing constraints, signal analysis, and protocol mechanics that make CSMA/CD possible.

The Collision Problem in Shared Media

Before we can understand collision detection, we must first understand why collisions occur and what they look like at the physical layer.

Shared Medium Fundamentals:

In early Ethernet networks (10BASE5, 10BASE2, and original 10BASE-T with hubs), all stations connected to a single shared communication channel—typically a coaxial cable or a hub that electrically connected all ports. When any station transmitted, its signal propagated throughout the entire medium, reaching all other stations.

This shared architecture creates a fundamental problem: if two stations transmit simultaneously, their signals overlap. Since both stations drive the same electrical medium, the superposition of their signals produces a corrupted waveform that neither station can decipher.

Characteristics of Collision Events
Aspect	Normal Transmission	Collision State
Voltage Levels	Defined Manchester encoding levels	Superimposed voltages, often exceeding normal ranges
Signal Amplitude	Within expected bounds (-0.85V to +0.85V for 10BASE-T)	Higher peaks due to signal addition
DC Bias	Near zero (balanced)	May shift due to unequal signal contributions
Data Integrity	Recoverable bit patterns	Corrupted, uninterpretable data
Detection Time	N/A	Must occur within one RTT

The Physics of Collisions:

When two signals collide on a shared medium, the result depends on the physical layer encoding:

Coaxial Cable (10BASE5/10BASE2): The cable acts as a transmission line. When two sources drive it simultaneously, the voltage at any point is the analog sum of both signals. If both transmit a logic '1', the resulting voltage might double. If one transmits '0' and the other '1', the voltages partially cancel.
Twisted Pair with Hub (10BASE-T): The hub electrically combines signals from all ports. A collision manifests as signal corruption at the hub, which then propagates the corrupted signal to all ports.
Manchester Encoding Implications: Ethernet uses Manchester encoding where each bit has a transition in the middle. During a collision, these transitions become irregular, violating the strict timing requirements of the encoding scheme.

Critical Insight

A collision is not just 'noise'—it's a specific, detectable event caused by the superposition of multiple structured signals. The collision produces an energy level or pattern that violates the normal signaling constraints, making it distinguishable from valid data.

How Collision Detection Works

Collision detection operates by monitoring the medium while transmitting. This is the critical distinction from pure CSMA protocols: a CSMA/CD station doesn't just listen before transmitting—it continues to listen during transmission to verify that only its own signal is present on the medium.

The Detection Mechanism:

The transceiver (transmitter-receiver unit) at each station performs three simultaneous operations during transmission:

Transmit: Drive the outgoing signal onto the medium
Receive: Read the signal currently on the medium
Compare: Verify that received signal matches transmitted signal

Collision Detection Methods

•Voltage Threshold Detection: If the signal amplitude exceeds normal transmission levels (typically by a factor of 1.4 or more), a collision is indicated. Two signals adding together produce higher voltage than either alone.
•DC Bias Detection: Normal Manchester encoding produces zero DC bias. During a collision, the bias can shift if the colliding signals have different duty cycles.
•Signal Quality Error (SQE): The transceiver provides a 'test' pulse after each frame. If the medium shows unexpected activity, SQE alerts the controller.
•Bit Comparison: The station compares what it transmitted with what it receives. Any discrepancy indicates another station's signal is present.

collision_detection_logic.pseudo
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// Collision Detection State Machine
// Runs concurrently with transmission
 
function monitorDuringTransmission(frame: Frame): TransmitResult {
    startTransmission(frame);
    
    while (transmission.inProgress) {
        // Read current signal on the medium
        receivedSignal = readMedium();
        expectedSignal = currentlyTransmitting();
        
        // Check for collision indicators
        if (receivedSignal.amplitude > NORMAL_MAX * COLLISION_THRESHOLD) {
            // Voltage level too high - collision detected
            return COLLISION_DETECTED;
        }
        
        if (receivedSignal.dcBias != EXPECTED_BIAS) {
            // DC level shifted - collision detected
            return COLLISION_DETECTED;
        }
        
        if (receivedSignal.bits != expectedSignal.bits) {
            // Bit mismatch - another station's signal present
            return COLLISION_DETECTED;
        }
    }
    
    // No collision detected throughout transmission
    return TRANSMISSION_SUCCESS;
}
 
// Constants for 10BASE-T
const NORMAL_MAX = 0.85;          // Volts
const COLLISION_THRESHOLD = 1.4;  // Multiplier (produces ~1.2V)
const EXPECTED_BIAS = 0.0;        // Volts (balanced)

The Transceiver Architecture:

The transceiver contains separate transmit and receive circuits that operate simultaneously:

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                    TRANSCEIVER UNIT                         │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│  ┌───────────┐                           ┌───────────────┐  │
│  │ TX Driver │──────┬───────────────────▶│   Medium      │  │
│  └───────────┘      │                    │  (Coax/UTP)   │  │
│                     │                    └───────────────┘  │
│                     ▼                           │           │
│              ┌─────────────┐                    │           │
│              │  Collision  │◀───────────────────┘           │
│              │  Detector   │                                │
│              └─────────────┘                                │
│                     │                                       │
│                     ▼                                       │
│              ┌─────────────┐                                │
│              │ RX Receiver │                                │
│              └─────────────┘                                │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

The collision detector operates in real-time, feeding its findings to the MAC controller within bit times to ensure timely response.

Collision Detection Timing Constraints

The timing of collision detection is absolutely critical to the correct operation of CSMA/CD. A station must detect any collision before it finishes transmitting the frame. This constraint drives the fundamental design parameters of Ethernet networks.

Why Timing Matters:

Consider this scenario:

Station A starts transmitting a frame
Station A's signal propagates toward Station B at the far end of the network
Just before A's signal reaches B, Station B (seeing an idle medium) starts transmitting
B's signal collides with A's signal and propagates back toward A
Station A must detect this collision before finishing its frame

If A finishes transmitting before the collision evidence returns, A believes the frame was sent successfully. But the frame is actually corrupted. This creates a silent failure—the worst kind of network error.

The Worst-Case Scenario

The absolute worst case for collision detection occurs when two stations at opposite ends of the network transmit at the same time. The collision occurs somewhere in the middle, and evidence of the collision must propagate back to both stations. This defines the Round-Trip Time (RTT) requirement.

The Round-Trip Time (RTT) Constraint:

For collision detection to function correctly:

Frame Transmission Time ≥ 2 × Maximum Propagation Delay

Or equivalently:

Frame Transmission Time ≥ RTT (Round-Trip Time)

This formula encapsulates the fundamental timing requirement. Let's derive it step by step:

Signal takes time T_prop to traverse the entire network
In worst case, the collision occurs at the far end at time T_prop
The collision evidence takes another T_prop to return to the sender
Total time for sender to detect collision: 2 × T_prop = RTT
Frame transmission must continue at least until this time

Collision Detection Timing for Standard Ethernet
Parameter	10 Mbps Ethernet	Calculation/Notes
Bit Time	100 ns	1 / 10 Mbps = 100 × 10⁻⁹ s
Maximum Network Diameter	2,500 m	5 segments × 500 m (10BASE5 repeater rule)
Propagation Speed in Cable	~2 × 10⁸ m/s	Approximately 0.67c (speed of light)
One-Way Propagation Delay	12.5 μs	2,500 m / (2 × 10⁸ m/s)
Round-Trip Time	25 μs	2 × 12.5 μs
Bits in RTT	250 bits	25 μs / 100 ns per bit
Safety Margin	262 bits	Accounts for repeaters, delays
Slot Time	512 bit times	51.2 μs (includes safety margin)

The Slot Time Concept:

Ethernet defines a slot time as the maximum time a station needs to detect a collision. For 10 Mbps Ethernet:

Slot Time = 512 bit times = 51.2 μs

This value includes:

Maximum propagation delays through cables
Delays through up to 4 repeaters (in the 5-4-3-2-1 rule)
Signal rise/fall times in transceivers
Safety margin for component variations

The slot time directly determines the minimum frame size (covered in the next page) and the collision domain diameter (maximum network extent where CSMA/CD functions correctly).

Engineering Wisdom

The slot time was carefully engineered to balance competing constraints: too short limits network size, too long reduces efficiency for small frames. The 512-bit choice for 10 Mbps Ethernet represented a practical compromise that worked well for campus-scale networks of the era.

The Collision Detection State Machine

The complete CSMA/CD protocol, with collision detection, can be modeled as a state machine. Understanding this state machine is essential for grasping how the protocol orchestrates transmission, detection, and recovery.

States in the CSMA/CD State Machine:

Protocol States

•IDLE: No frame to transmit. Station monitors medium, ready to transmit when data arrives.
•CARRIER SENSE: Frame ready. Station listens to detect if medium is busy.
•TRANSMITTING: Medium was idle, transmission has begun. Station monitors for collisions.
•COLLISION DETECTED: Collision identified during transmission. Station prepares for recovery.
•JAMMING: Station transmits jam signal to ensure all parties detect the collision.
•BACKOFF: Station waits a random time before attempting retransmission.
•RETRY: Prepared for next transmission attempt after backoff expires.

csma_cd_state_machine.pseudo
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// Full CSMA/CD Protocol State Machine
 
enum State { IDLE, CARRIER_SENSE, TRANSMITTING, COLLISION, JAMMING, BACKOFF, RETRY }
 
class CSMAController {
    state: State = IDLE;
    attemptCount: number = 0;
    maxAttempts: number = 16;
    
    function handleFrame(frame: Frame): TransmitResult {
        this.attemptCount = 0;
        
        while (this.attemptCount < this.maxAttempts) {
            // CARRIER SENSE state
            this.state = CARRIER_SENSE;
            waitForMediumIdle();
            
            // Wait Inter-Frame Gap (IFG = 96 bit times)
            delay(IFG);
            
            // TRANSMITTING state
            this.state = TRANSMITTING;
            startTransmission(frame);
            
            // Monitor during transmission
            while (isTransmitting()) {
                if (collisionDetected()) {
                    // COLLISION state
                    this.state = COLLISION;
                    stopTransmission();
                    
                    // JAMMING state - enforce collision
                    this.state = JAMMING;
                    transmitJamSignal(32);  // 32 bits of jam
                    
                    this.attemptCount++;
                    
                    if (this.attemptCount >= this.maxAttempts) {
                        return EXCESSIVE_COLLISIONS_ERROR;
                    }
                    
                    // BACKOFF state
                    this.state = BACKOFF;
                    backoffSlots = binaryExponentialBackoff(this.attemptCount);
                    delay(backoffSlots * SLOT_TIME);
                    
                    // RETRY state
                    this.state = RETRY;
                    break;  // Exit monitoring loop, retry transmission
                }
            }
            
            // Check if transmission completed successfully
            if (this.state == TRANSMITTING) {
                this.state = IDLE;
                return SUCCESS;
            }
        }
        
        this.state = IDLE;
        return FAILURE;
    }
    
    function binaryExponentialBackoff(k: number): number {
        // k = attempt number (1 to 16)
        // Returns random integer in [0, 2^min(k,10) - 1]
        let maxSlots = Math.pow(2, Math.min(k, 10)) - 1;
        return randomInteger(0, maxSlots);
    }
}

Key State Transitions:

Current State	Event	Next State	Action
IDLE	Frame to send	CARRIER_SENSE	Begin monitoring medium
CARRIER_SENSE	Medium idle for IFG	TRANSMITTING	Start frame transmission
TRANSMITTING	No collision, frame complete	IDLE	Frame sent successfully
TRANSMITTING	Collision detected	COLLISION	Stop transmission immediately
COLLISION	—	JAMMING	Transmit 32-bit jam signal
JAMMING	Jam complete	BACKOFF	Calculate random wait time
BACKOFF	Wait complete	RETRY	Restart with carrier sense
RETRY	—	CARRIER_SENSE	Begin next attempt

Implementation Detail

In actual hardware, the collision detection logic operates at clock speeds of 10/100/1000 MHz, making decisions within individual bit times. The state machine is implemented in silicon, not software, for the performance required in real-time collision detection.

Collision Detection Across Media Types

The physical mechanism for collision detection varies depending on the transmission medium. Understanding these differences illuminates why CSMA/CD works in some contexts but not others.

Coaxial Cable (10BASE5 and 10BASE2):

Original Ethernet used thick (10BASE5) or thin (10BASE2) coaxial cable as a single shared bus topology:

Stations tap directly into the cable
All stations see the same electrical signal
Collision detection: Voltage on cable exceeds thresholds
The collision manifests as analog superposition of signals

The transceiver monitors the cable voltage. Normal Manchester encoding produces predictable voltage swings. During collision, the combined voltage of two or more transmitters exceeds normal ranges—typically producing peaks 40-100% higher than single-transmitter levels.

Coaxial (10BASE5/10BASE2)

•True bus topology—all stations share wire
•Collision detection via voltage amplitude
•Analog addition of signals creates overvoltage
•500m (10BASE5) or 185m (10BASE2) max segment
•Vampire taps or BNC connectors for attachment

Twisted Pair with Hub (10/100BASE-TX)

•Star topology—hub at center
•Hub repeats signals to all ports
•Collision detected when TX and RX active simultaneously
•Hub generates collision signal on all ports
•100m max segment (station to hub)

Twisted Pair with Hub (10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX):

When Ethernet moved to Category 3/5 cabling with hubs, the collision detection mechanism changed:

┌─────────┐                           ┌─────────┐
│ Station │──TX──────────────RX───────│         │
│    A    │──RX──────────────TX───────│   HUB   │
└─────────┘                           │         │
                                      │         │
┌─────────┐                           │         │
│ Station │──TX──────────────RX───────│         │
│    B    │──RX──────────────TX───────│         │
└─────────┘                           └─────────┘

Each station has separate TX and RX pairs. A station detects collision when:

It is transmitting (TX pair active)
Simultaneously, it receives a signal (RX pair active)

Since stations only transmit on the TX pair and receive on the RX pair, receiving something while transmitting means another station is also transmitting—a collision.

The Hub's Role:

The hub is a multi-port repeater. When two stations transmit simultaneously:

Hub receives both signals
Hub detects the collision (combined signal exceeds thresholds)
Hub generates a collision presence signal (sometimes called collision enforcement)
This signal is sent to all ports, alerting all stations

Why CSMA/CD Doesn't Work with Switches

Modern switches create individual collision domains per port. Each port is isolated—Station A cannot detect Station B's transmission because they're on separate switch ports with buffered connections. This eliminates collisions but also makes CSMA/CD irrelevant. Switched Ethernet operates in full-duplex mode, completely abandoning CSMA/CD.

Why Collision Detection Is Impossible in Wireless:

CSMA/CD cannot work for wireless networks (WiFi) for a fundamental reason:

Wireless stations cannot receive while transmitting. The transmitter overwhelms the receiver—it's like trying to hear a whisper while shouting through a megaphone.
The hidden terminal problem. Station A might not be able to detect Station C's transmission while both are in range of Station B.

This limitation led to the development of CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) for 802.11 networks, which attempts to prevent collisions rather than detect them.

Collision Detection Performance Analysis

The efficiency of collision detection depends on how quickly stations can recognize and respond to collisions. Faster detection means less wasted bandwidth.

Collision Detection Latency:

The time from collision occurrence to station awareness consists of:

Propagation Delay: Time for collision evidence to travel back to transmitter
Detection Delay: Time for transceiver to recognize collision signature
Processing Delay: Time for MAC controller to receive and react to collision signal

For 10 Mbps Ethernet, typical detection delays:

Transceiver detection: ~2-5 bit times (200-500 ns)
Signal quality detection: ~10-20 bit times
Total hardware delay: typically < 10% of propagation delay

Collision Detection Timing Across Ethernet Speeds
Parameter	10 Mbps	100 Mbps	1 Gbps
Bit Time	100 ns	10 ns	1 ns
Slot Time	512 bits (51.2 μs)	512 bits (5.12 μs)	4096 bits (4.096 μs)
Min Frame Size	64 bytes	64 bytes	512 bytes (slotTime)
Max Segment	2500 m	250 m	25 m (for half-duplex)
Detection Latency	~100-500 ns	~10-50 ns	~1-5 ns

Why Faster Ethernet Has Shorter Reach:

Notice how maximum segment length decreases as speed increases:

10 Mbps: 2500 m
100 Mbps: 250 m
1 Gbps: ~25 m (half-duplex)

This is a direct consequence of collision detection requirements. At higher speeds:

Frame transmission completes faster
But propagation delay (limited by speed of light) stays the same
Therefore, maximum distance must decrease to maintain the RTT ≤ frame time constraint

For Gigabit Ethernet, this constraint became impractical, leading to two solutions:

Carrier Extension: Pad short frames to 512 bytes
Frame Bursting: Send multiple frames back-to-back after one carrier sense
Full-Duplex Mode: Eliminate collisions entirely using switches

Modern Reality

Virtually all modern Ethernet networks use full-duplex switched connections where CSMA/CD is disabled. Understanding CSMA/CD remains valuable for: (1) legacy network support, (2) understanding network fundamentals, (3) certification exams, and (4) appreciating why switches transformed LAN design.

Summary: Mastering Collision Detection

We've explored the foundational concept of collision detection—the 'CD' in CSMA/CD that made Ethernet reliable on shared media.

Key Takeaways

•Collision detection is simultaneous monitoring — Stations listen to the medium while transmitting to verify only their signal is present.
•Detection mechanisms vary by medium — Voltage thresholds for coax, TX/RX activity for twisted pair with hubs.
•Timing constraints are fundamental — Frame transmission time must exceed round-trip propagation time (RTT).
•Slot time defines network geometry — The 512-bit slot time determines maximum network diameter.
•Higher speeds require shorter distances — Propagation delay becomes dominant at faster bit rates.
•Modern networks eliminate collisions — Full-duplex switched Ethernet makes CSMA/CD unnecessary.

What's Next:

With collision detection understood, we need to examine a critical consequence: the minimum frame size requirement. The next page explores why Ethernet frames must be at least 64 bytes long—and what happens when they're not.

Page Complete

You now understand how collision detection works—the physical mechanisms, timing constraints, and protocol architecture that enable stations to detect simultaneous transmissions. Next, we'll see why minimum frame size is a direct consequence of these collision detection requirements.

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Loading learning content...

Computer NetworksCSMA/CD

CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

LevelIntermediate

Duration60 mins

TopicCSMA/CD

1 / 5

Collision Detection — The Foundation of CSMA/CD

The Moment of Impact

What You Will Learn

The Collision Problem in Shared Media

Before we can understand collision detection, we must first understand why collisions occur and what they look like at the physical layer.

Shared Medium Fundamentals:

Characteristics of Collision Events
Aspect	Normal Transmission	Collision State
Voltage Levels	Defined Manchester encoding levels	Superimposed voltages, often exceeding normal ranges
Signal Amplitude	Within expected bounds (-0.85V to +0.85V for 10BASE-T)	Higher peaks due to signal addition
DC Bias	Near zero (balanced)	May shift due to unequal signal contributions
Data Integrity	Recoverable bit patterns	Corrupted, uninterpretable data
Detection Time	N/A	Must occur within one RTT

The Physics of Collisions:

When two signals collide on a shared medium, the result depends on the physical layer encoding:

Coaxial Cable (10BASE5/10BASE2): The cable acts as a transmission line. When two sources drive it simultaneously, the voltage at any point is the analog sum of both signals. If both transmit a logic '1', the resulting voltage might double. If one transmits '0' and the other '1', the voltages partially cancel.
Twisted Pair with Hub (10BASE-T): The hub electrically combines signals from all ports. A collision manifests as signal corruption at the hub, which then propagates the corrupted signal to all ports.
Manchester Encoding Implications: Ethernet uses Manchester encoding where each bit has a transition in the middle. During a collision, these transitions become irregular, violating the strict timing requirements of the encoding scheme.

Critical Insight

How Collision Detection Works

The Detection Mechanism:

The transceiver (transmitter-receiver unit) at each station performs three simultaneous operations during transmission:

Transmit: Drive the outgoing signal onto the medium
Receive: Read the signal currently on the medium
Compare: Verify that received signal matches transmitted signal

Collision Detection Methods

•Voltage Threshold Detection: If the signal amplitude exceeds normal transmission levels (typically by a factor of 1.4 or more), a collision is indicated. Two signals adding together produce higher voltage than either alone.
•DC Bias Detection: Normal Manchester encoding produces zero DC bias. During a collision, the bias can shift if the colliding signals have different duty cycles.
•Signal Quality Error (SQE): The transceiver provides a 'test' pulse after each frame. If the medium shows unexpected activity, SQE alerts the controller.
•Bit Comparison: The station compares what it transmitted with what it receives. Any discrepancy indicates another station's signal is present.

collision_detection_logic.pseudo
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// Collision Detection State Machine
// Runs concurrently with transmission
 
function monitorDuringTransmission(frame: Frame): TransmitResult {
    startTransmission(frame);
    
    while (transmission.inProgress) {
        // Read current signal on the medium
        receivedSignal = readMedium();
        expectedSignal = currentlyTransmitting();
        
        // Check for collision indicators
        if (receivedSignal.amplitude > NORMAL_MAX * COLLISION_THRESHOLD) {
            // Voltage level too high - collision detected
            return COLLISION_DETECTED;
        }
        
        if (receivedSignal.dcBias != EXPECTED_BIAS) {
            // DC level shifted - collision detected
            return COLLISION_DETECTED;
        }
        
        if (receivedSignal.bits != expectedSignal.bits) {
            // Bit mismatch - another station's signal present
            return COLLISION_DETECTED;
        }
    }
    
    // No collision detected throughout transmission
    return TRANSMISSION_SUCCESS;
}
 
// Constants for 10BASE-T
const NORMAL_MAX = 0.85;          // Volts
const COLLISION_THRESHOLD = 1.4;  // Multiplier (produces ~1.2V)
const EXPECTED_BIAS = 0.0;        // Volts (balanced)

The Transceiver Architecture:

The transceiver contains separate transmit and receive circuits that operate simultaneously:

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                    TRANSCEIVER UNIT                         │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│  ┌───────────┐                           ┌───────────────┐  │
│  │ TX Driver │──────┬───────────────────▶│   Medium      │  │
│  └───────────┘      │                    │  (Coax/UTP)   │  │
│                     │                    └───────────────┘  │
│                     ▼                           │           │
│              ┌─────────────┐                    │           │
│              │  Collision  │◀───────────────────┘           │
│              │  Detector   │                                │
│              └─────────────┘                                │
│                     │                                       │
│                     ▼                                       │
│              ┌─────────────┐                                │
│              │ RX Receiver │                                │
│              └─────────────┘                                │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

The collision detector operates in real-time, feeding its findings to the MAC controller within bit times to ensure timely response.

Collision Detection Timing Constraints

Why Timing Matters:

Consider this scenario:

Station A starts transmitting a frame
Station A's signal propagates toward Station B at the far end of the network
Just before A's signal reaches B, Station B (seeing an idle medium) starts transmitting
B's signal collides with A's signal and propagates back toward A
Station A must detect this collision before finishing its frame

The Worst-Case Scenario

The Round-Trip Time (RTT) Constraint:

For collision detection to function correctly:

Frame Transmission Time ≥ 2 × Maximum Propagation Delay

Or equivalently:

Frame Transmission Time ≥ RTT (Round-Trip Time)

This formula encapsulates the fundamental timing requirement. Let's derive it step by step:

Signal takes time T_prop to traverse the entire network
In worst case, the collision occurs at the far end at time T_prop
The collision evidence takes another T_prop to return to the sender
Total time for sender to detect collision: 2 × T_prop = RTT
Frame transmission must continue at least until this time

Collision Detection Timing for Standard Ethernet
Parameter	10 Mbps Ethernet	Calculation/Notes
Bit Time	100 ns	1 / 10 Mbps = 100 × 10⁻⁹ s
Maximum Network Diameter	2,500 m	5 segments × 500 m (10BASE5 repeater rule)
Propagation Speed in Cable	~2 × 10⁸ m/s	Approximately 0.67c (speed of light)
One-Way Propagation Delay	12.5 μs	2,500 m / (2 × 10⁸ m/s)
Round-Trip Time	25 μs	2 × 12.5 μs
Bits in RTT	250 bits	25 μs / 100 ns per bit
Safety Margin	262 bits	Accounts for repeaters, delays
Slot Time	512 bit times	51.2 μs (includes safety margin)

The Slot Time Concept:

Ethernet defines a slot time as the maximum time a station needs to detect a collision. For 10 Mbps Ethernet:

Slot Time = 512 bit times = 51.2 μs

This value includes:

Maximum propagation delays through cables
Delays through up to 4 repeaters (in the 5-4-3-2-1 rule)
Signal rise/fall times in transceivers
Safety margin for component variations

The slot time directly determines the minimum frame size (covered in the next page) and the collision domain diameter (maximum network extent where CSMA/CD functions correctly).

Engineering Wisdom

The Collision Detection State Machine

States in the CSMA/CD State Machine:

Protocol States

•IDLE: No frame to transmit. Station monitors medium, ready to transmit when data arrives.
•CARRIER SENSE: Frame ready. Station listens to detect if medium is busy.
•TRANSMITTING: Medium was idle, transmission has begun. Station monitors for collisions.
•COLLISION DETECTED: Collision identified during transmission. Station prepares for recovery.
•JAMMING: Station transmits jam signal to ensure all parties detect the collision.
•BACKOFF: Station waits a random time before attempting retransmission.
•RETRY: Prepared for next transmission attempt after backoff expires.

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// Full CSMA/CD Protocol State Machine
 
enum State { IDLE, CARRIER_SENSE, TRANSMITTING, COLLISION, JAMMING, BACKOFF, RETRY }
 
class CSMAController {
    state: State = IDLE;
    attemptCount: number = 0;
    maxAttempts: number = 16;
    
    function handleFrame(frame: Frame): TransmitResult {
        this.attemptCount = 0;
        
        while (this.attemptCount < this.maxAttempts) {
            // CARRIER SENSE state
            this.state = CARRIER_SENSE;
            waitForMediumIdle();
            
            // Wait Inter-Frame Gap (IFG = 96 bit times)
            delay(IFG);
            
            // TRANSMITTING state
            this.state = TRANSMITTING;
            startTransmission(frame);
            
            // Monitor during transmission
            while (isTransmitting()) {
                if (collisionDetected()) {
                    // COLLISION state
                    this.state = COLLISION;
                    stopTransmission();
                    
                    // JAMMING state - enforce collision
                    this.state = JAMMING;
                    transmitJamSignal(32);  // 32 bits of jam
                    
                    this.attemptCount++;
                    
                    if (this.attemptCount >= this.maxAttempts) {
                        return EXCESSIVE_COLLISIONS_ERROR;
                    }
                    
                    // BACKOFF state
                    this.state = BACKOFF;
                    backoffSlots = binaryExponentialBackoff(this.attemptCount);
                    delay(backoffSlots * SLOT_TIME);
                    
                    // RETRY state
                    this.state = RETRY;
                    break;  // Exit monitoring loop, retry transmission
                }
            }
            
            // Check if transmission completed successfully
            if (this.state == TRANSMITTING) {
                this.state = IDLE;
                return SUCCESS;
            }
        }
        
        this.state = IDLE;
        return FAILURE;
    }
    
    function binaryExponentialBackoff(k: number): number {
        // k = attempt number (1 to 16)
        // Returns random integer in [0, 2^min(k,10) - 1]
        let maxSlots = Math.pow(2, Math.min(k, 10)) - 1;
        return randomInteger(0, maxSlots);
    }
}

Key State Transitions:

Current State	Event	Next State	Action
IDLE	Frame to send	CARRIER_SENSE	Begin monitoring medium
CARRIER_SENSE	Medium idle for IFG	TRANSMITTING	Start frame transmission
TRANSMITTING	No collision, frame complete	IDLE	Frame sent successfully
TRANSMITTING	Collision detected	COLLISION	Stop transmission immediately
COLLISION	—	JAMMING	Transmit 32-bit jam signal
JAMMING	Jam complete	BACKOFF	Calculate random wait time
BACKOFF	Wait complete	RETRY	Restart with carrier sense
RETRY	—	CARRIER_SENSE	Begin next attempt

Implementation Detail

Collision Detection Across Media Types

The physical mechanism for collision detection varies depending on the transmission medium. Understanding these differences illuminates why CSMA/CD works in some contexts but not others.

Coaxial Cable (10BASE5 and 10BASE2):

Original Ethernet used thick (10BASE5) or thin (10BASE2) coaxial cable as a single shared bus topology:

Stations tap directly into the cable
All stations see the same electrical signal
Collision detection: Voltage on cable exceeds thresholds
The collision manifests as analog superposition of signals

Coaxial (10BASE5/10BASE2)

•True bus topology—all stations share wire
•Collision detection via voltage amplitude
•Analog addition of signals creates overvoltage
•500m (10BASE5) or 185m (10BASE2) max segment
•Vampire taps or BNC connectors for attachment

Twisted Pair with Hub (10/100BASE-TX)

•Star topology—hub at center
•Hub repeats signals to all ports
•Collision detected when TX and RX active simultaneously
•Hub generates collision signal on all ports
•100m max segment (station to hub)

Twisted Pair with Hub (10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX):

When Ethernet moved to Category 3/5 cabling with hubs, the collision detection mechanism changed:

┌─────────┐                           ┌─────────┐
│ Station │──TX──────────────RX───────│         │
│    A    │──RX──────────────TX───────│   HUB   │
└─────────┘                           │         │
                                      │         │
┌─────────┐                           │         │
│ Station │──TX──────────────RX───────│         │
│    B    │──RX──────────────TX───────│         │
└─────────┘                           └─────────┘

Each station has separate TX and RX pairs. A station detects collision when:

It is transmitting (TX pair active)
Simultaneously, it receives a signal (RX pair active)

Since stations only transmit on the TX pair and receive on the RX pair, receiving something while transmitting means another station is also transmitting—a collision.

The Hub's Role:

The hub is a multi-port repeater. When two stations transmit simultaneously:

Hub receives both signals
Hub detects the collision (combined signal exceeds thresholds)
Hub generates a collision presence signal (sometimes called collision enforcement)
This signal is sent to all ports, alerting all stations

Why CSMA/CD Doesn't Work with Switches

Why Collision Detection Is Impossible in Wireless:

CSMA/CD cannot work for wireless networks (WiFi) for a fundamental reason:

Wireless stations cannot receive while transmitting. The transmitter overwhelms the receiver—it's like trying to hear a whisper while shouting through a megaphone.
The hidden terminal problem. Station A might not be able to detect Station C's transmission while both are in range of Station B.

This limitation led to the development of CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) for 802.11 networks, which attempts to prevent collisions rather than detect them.

Collision Detection Performance Analysis

The efficiency of collision detection depends on how quickly stations can recognize and respond to collisions. Faster detection means less wasted bandwidth.

Collision Detection Latency:

The time from collision occurrence to station awareness consists of:

Propagation Delay: Time for collision evidence to travel back to transmitter
Detection Delay: Time for transceiver to recognize collision signature
Processing Delay: Time for MAC controller to receive and react to collision signal

For 10 Mbps Ethernet, typical detection delays:

Transceiver detection: ~2-5 bit times (200-500 ns)
Signal quality detection: ~10-20 bit times
Total hardware delay: typically < 10% of propagation delay

Collision Detection Timing Across Ethernet Speeds
Parameter	10 Mbps	100 Mbps	1 Gbps
Bit Time	100 ns	10 ns	1 ns
Slot Time	512 bits (51.2 μs)	512 bits (5.12 μs)	4096 bits (4.096 μs)
Min Frame Size	64 bytes	64 bytes	512 bytes (slotTime)
Max Segment	2500 m	250 m	25 m (for half-duplex)
Detection Latency	~100-500 ns	~10-50 ns	~1-5 ns

Why Faster Ethernet Has Shorter Reach:

Notice how maximum segment length decreases as speed increases:

10 Mbps: 2500 m
100 Mbps: 250 m
1 Gbps: ~25 m (half-duplex)

This is a direct consequence of collision detection requirements. At higher speeds:

Frame transmission completes faster
But propagation delay (limited by speed of light) stays the same
Therefore, maximum distance must decrease to maintain the RTT ≤ frame time constraint

For Gigabit Ethernet, this constraint became impractical, leading to two solutions:

Carrier Extension: Pad short frames to 512 bytes
Frame Bursting: Send multiple frames back-to-back after one carrier sense
Full-Duplex Mode: Eliminate collisions entirely using switches

Modern Reality

Summary: Mastering Collision Detection

We've explored the foundational concept of collision detection—the 'CD' in CSMA/CD that made Ethernet reliable on shared media.

Key Takeaways

•Collision detection is simultaneous monitoring — Stations listen to the medium while transmitting to verify only their signal is present.
•Detection mechanisms vary by medium — Voltage thresholds for coax, TX/RX activity for twisted pair with hubs.
•Timing constraints are fundamental — Frame transmission time must exceed round-trip propagation time (RTT).
•Slot time defines network geometry — The 512-bit slot time determines maximum network diameter.
•Higher speeds require shorter distances — Propagation delay becomes dominant at faster bit rates.
•Modern networks eliminate collisions — Full-duplex switched Ethernet makes CSMA/CD unnecessary.

What's Next:

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