Database Management SystemsDistributed Transactions

Distributed Transactions

LevelAdvanced

Duration75 mins

TopicDistributed Transactions

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Two-Phase Commit (2PC)

The Fundamental Challenge of Distributed Atomicity

In a centralized database system, ensuring that a transaction either fully commits or fully aborts is relatively straightforward—the single database engine controls all resources and can make a unilateral decision. However, in a distributed database system, where data resides across multiple independent nodes, this seemingly simple guarantee becomes extraordinarily complex.

Consider a global banking transaction that transfers money between accounts stored on servers in New York, London, and Tokyo. Each server independently manages its local data and has no direct knowledge of the others' states. If the New York server commits the debit but the London server fails before crediting, the system enters an inconsistent state where money has vanished. The fundamental question becomes: How can we ensure that all participating nodes either all commit or all abort, despite operating independently and potentially failing at any moment?

What You Will Learn

By the end of this page, you will deeply understand the Two-Phase Commit (2PC) protocol—the canonical solution for achieving atomicity in distributed transactions. You will comprehend its theoretical foundations, walk through its precise mechanics, analyze its properties, and recognize both its power and its limitations.

The Distributed Atomicity Problem

Before we can appreciate the elegance of Two-Phase Commit, we must first understand the fundamental problem it solves. In distributed systems theory, this is known as the atomic commitment problem.

The Core Problem:

A distributed transaction involves multiple participants—independent processes or nodes that each hold a portion of the data being accessed. For atomicity, we require:

All-or-Nothing Execution: Either every participant commits the transaction, or none of them do
Unanimous Agreement: If any participant cannot commit (due to constraint violations, deadlocks, or failures), then no participant commits
Irrevocability: Once a participant commits, it cannot later abort (and vice versa)
Eventual Termination: The protocol must eventually reach a decision, not remain indefinitely uncertain

These requirements seem intuitive, but achieving them in the presence of unreliable networks and node failures is remarkably subtle.

The Impossibility Result

The Fischer-Lynch-Paterson (FLP) theorem proves that no deterministic protocol can guarantee consensus in an asynchronous system with even one faulty process. The Two-Phase Commit protocol navigates this impossibility by accepting certain trade-offs—specifically, the possibility of blocking during failures.

Why Simple Approaches Fail:

A naive approach might have each participant independently decide to commit once its local work succeeds. But this fails catastrophically:

Participant A completes its local work and commits
Participant B encounters a constraint violation and must abort
Result: Inconsistent state—A has committed changes that B has not

Another naive approach might have a central coordinator simply tell everyone to commit. But this also fails:

Coordinator sends 'COMMIT' to all participants
Participant A commits successfully
Participant B crashes before receiving the message
Result: A has committed, B has not—inconsistency persists

The fundamental insight is that we need a protocol where every participant's ability to commit is verified before any participant actually commits. This is the core idea behind Two-Phase Commit.

Two-Phase Commit Protocol Overview

The Two-Phase Commit (2PC) protocol, introduced by Jim Gray in 1978, is the canonical solution to the atomic commitment problem. The name derives from its two distinct phases:

Prepare Phase (Voting Phase): The coordinator queries all participants to determine if they can commit
Commit Phase (Decision Phase): Based on the votes, the coordinator instructs all participants to either commit or abort

This two-phase structure ensures that no participant permanently commits until the coordinator has confirmed that all participants are prepared to commit. Let's examine each phase in rigorous detail.

Two-Phase Commit Protocol Phases
Phase	Initiator	Message Flow	Purpose
Phase 1: Prepare	Coordinator	Coordinator → Participants (PREPARE)	Gather votes on commit readiness
Phase 1 Response	Participants	Participants → Coordinator (VOTE_COMMIT / VOTE_ABORT)	Report local commit capability
Phase 2: Commit/Abort	Coordinator	Coordinator → Participants (COMMIT / ABORT)	Enforce global decision
Phase 2 Response	Participants	Participants → Coordinator (ACK)	Confirm completion

Protocol Actors:

The 2PC protocol involves two types of actors:

Coordinator (Transaction Manager):

Initiates and manages the distributed transaction
Sends PREPARE messages to all participants
Collects votes and makes the global commit/abort decision
Logs decisions to stable storage for recovery
Sends the final decision to all participants

Participants (Resource Managers):

Execute local portions of the transaction
Respond to PREPARE with their vote (VOTE_COMMIT or VOTE_ABORT)
Follow the coordinator's final decision
Log their state transitions for recovery

Typically, the client application interacts only with the coordinator, which orchestrates the entire distributed transaction transparently.

Phase 1: The Prepare Phase

The Prepare Phase is the heart of the 2PC protocol—it ensures that every participant can commit before any participant is instructed to do so. Here is the precise sequence of events:

Step 1: Coordinator Initiates Prepare

When the application requests to commit the distributed transaction, the coordinator:

Writes a <PREPARE T> record to its local stable log
Sends a PREPARE message to all participants
Sets a timeout timer for collecting votes

Step 2: Participant Processes PREPARE

Upon receiving the PREPARE message, each participant decides whether it can commit.

If the participant CAN commit:

It writes a <PREPARED T> record to its stable log
It replies with VOTE_COMMIT
It enters the prepared state (also called the uncertain state)
It releases no locks—resources remain locked!

If the participant CANNOT commit (constraint violation, deadlock, resource unavailable):

It writes an <ABORT T> record to its stable log
It replies with VOTE_ABORT
It aborts its local portion and releases locks
It need not wait for the coordinator's decision—the transaction will abort

The Critical Prepared State

When a participant votes VOTE_COMMIT, it enters the prepared state. This is a commitment to follow the coordinator's decision, whatever it may be. The participant is promising: 'I CAN commit this transaction, and I WILL commit if you tell me to—and I WILL abort if you tell me to abort.' This promise is irrevocable until the coordinator responds.

The Durability of PREPARED:

The <PREPARED T> log record is absolutely critical. By writing this record to stable storage before voting VOTE_COMMIT, the participant ensures that:

If it crashes: Upon recovery, it can determine from its log that it voted to commit and must wait for the coordinator's decision
If it is in doubt: It knows to query the coordinator rather than unilaterally aborting

Why Voting COMMIT is Irrevocable:

Once a participant votes VOTE_COMMIT, it cannot unilaterally abort. Consider this scenario:

Participant P1 votes VOTE_COMMIT
Participant P2 also votes VOTE_COMMIT
Coordinator decides COMMIT
P1 crashes before receiving COMMIT, recovers, and unilaterally aborts
Result: P2 has committed, P1 has aborted—inconsistency!

By making VOTE_COMMIT irrevocable and logging it durably, we prevent this inconsistency.

prepare-phase-pseudocode.txt
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COORDINATOR: Initiate Prepare Phase
────────────────────────────────────────────
function prepare_phase(transaction T, participants P[]):
    // Step 1: Log prepare initiation
    log_to_stable_storage(<PREPARE T>)
    
    // Step 2: Send PREPARE to all participants
    for each participant p in P[]:
        send(p, PREPARE, T)
    
    // Step 3: Collect votes with timeout
    votes = {}
    start_timer(PREPARE_TIMEOUT)
    
    while not all_votes_received(P[], votes):
        if timeout_expired():
            return GLOBAL_ABORT  // Missing vote = veto
        
        msg = receive_message()
        if msg.type == VOTE_COMMIT or msg.type == VOTE_ABORT:
            votes[msg.sender] = msg.type
    
    // Step 4: Determine global decision
    if all(vote == VOTE_COMMIT for vote in votes.values()):
        return GLOBAL_COMMIT
    else:
        return GLOBAL_ABORT
 
 
PARTICIPANT: Process PREPARE Request
────────────────────────────────────────────
function handle_prepare(transaction T):
    if can_commit(T):
        // Durably record our promise before voting
        log_to_stable_storage(<PREPARED T>)
        
        // Enter prepared/uncertain state
        set_state(T, PREPARED)
        
        send(coordinator, VOTE_COMMIT, T)
    else:
        // Log abort and release resources
        log_to_stable_storage(<ABORT T>)
        
        release_locks(T)
        rollback_changes(T)
        
        send(coordinator, VOTE_ABORT, T)

Phase 2: The Commit Phase

Once the coordinator has collected all votes (or the timeout has expired), it enters the Commit Phase and makes a global decision.

Decision Rule:

The decision follows a simple but critical rule:

If ALL participants voted VOTE_COMMIT → Global decision is COMMIT
If ANY participant voted VOTE_ABORT OR any participant timed out → Global decision is ABORT

This rule ensures that a transaction commits only when every participant has explicitly confirmed its ability to commit. Any failure, whether an explicit VOTE_ABORT or a failure to respond, results in abort—preserving the all-or-nothing property.

Coordinator Decision Matrix
Vote Pattern	Global Decision	Rationale
All VOTE_COMMIT	COMMIT	Universal agreement—safe to commit
At least one VOTE_ABORT	ABORT	Explicit rejection—cannot commit
At least one timeout/no response	ABORT	Cannot confirm consensus—abort to be safe
Mixed VOTE_COMMIT and VOTE_ABORT	ABORT	Any ABORT vetoes the transaction

Step-by-Step Commit Phase:

If Global Decision is COMMIT:

Coordinator writes <COMMIT T> to its stable log (this is the commit point)
Coordinator sends GLOBAL_COMMIT message to all participants
Each participant:
- Writes <COMMIT T> to its stable log
- Makes changes permanent (commit locally)
- Releases all locks
- Sends ACKNOWLEDGMENT to coordinator
Coordinator waits for all acknowledgments
Coordinator writes <END T> to log and forgets the transaction

If Global Decision is ABORT:

Coordinator writes <ABORT T> to its stable log
Coordinator sends GLOBAL_ABORT message to all participants
Each participant that was in PREPARED state:
- Writes <ABORT T> to its stable log
- Rolls back changes (undo local work)
- Releases all locks
- Sends ACKNOWLEDGMENT to coordinator
Coordinator waits for all acknowledgments
Coordinator writes <END T> to log and forgets the transaction

The Point of No Return

The commit point is the moment when the coordinator writes <COMMIT T> to stable storage. Before this moment, the transaction might still abort. After this moment, the transaction is irrevocably committed. Even if the coordinator crashes immediately after writing this record, upon recovery it will see the COMMIT record and re-send GLOBAL_COMMIT to any participants that haven't acknowledged.

commit-phase-pseudocode.txt
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COORDINATOR: Commit Phase
────────────────────────────────────────────
function commit_phase(transaction T, decision, participants P[]):
    if decision == GLOBAL_COMMIT:
        // THE COMMIT POINT - once logged, transaction MUST commit
        log_to_stable_storage(<COMMIT T>)
        
        // Inform all participants of commit decision
        for each participant p in P[]:
            send(p, GLOBAL_COMMIT, T)
        
    else:  // decision == GLOBAL_ABORT
        log_to_stable_storage(<ABORT T>)
        
        // Inform participants that voted COMMIT (others already aborted)
        for each participant p that voted VOTE_COMMIT:
            send(p, GLOBAL_ABORT, T)
    
    // Collect acknowledgments (with retry for reliability)
    acks = {}
    while not all_acks_received(P[], acks):
        for each p not in acks:
            resend_decision(p, decision, T)  // Retry if needed
        
        msg = receive_message()
        if msg.type == ACK:
            acks[msg.sender] = true
    
    // Transaction complete
    log_to_stable_storage(<END T>)
    forget_transaction(T)
 
 
PARTICIPANT: Process Global Decision
────────────────────────────────────────────
function handle_global_decision(transaction T, decision):
    if decision == GLOBAL_COMMIT:
        // Make changes permanent
        log_to_stable_storage(<COMMIT T>)
        commit_local_changes(T)
        release_locks(T)
        
    else:  // decision == GLOBAL_ABORT
        // Undo any prepared work
        log_to_stable_storage(<ABORT T>)
        rollback_changes(T)
        release_locks(T)
    
    // Acknowledge completion to coordinator
    send(coordinator, ACK, T)
    
    // Clean up local transaction state
    forget_transaction(T)

Protocol State Diagrams

Understanding the state transitions in 2PC is essential for implementing the protocol correctly and reasoning about failure scenarios. Both the coordinator and participants move through well-defined states.

Coordinator States:

INITIAL: Transaction is active, running normally
WAIT: Sent PREPARE, waiting for votes from participants
COMMIT: Decided to commit, sending GLOBAL_COMMIT
ABORT: Decided to abort, sending GLOBAL_ABORT
END: Transaction completed, resources freed

Participant States:

INITIAL: Executing local transaction operations
PREPARED (UNCERTAIN): Voted VOTE_COMMIT, waiting for global decision
COMMITTED: Received GLOBAL_COMMIT, applied changes permanently
ABORTED: Either voted VOTE_ABORT or received GLOBAL_ABORT

Converting Mermaid diagram...

The Critical PREPARED State:

The PREPARED state for participants is uniquely important—and uniquely dangerous. A participant in the PREPARED state:

Has promised to follow the coordinator's decision
Cannot unilaterally abort or commit
Is holding locks that block other transactions
Must wait for the coordinator to resolve the uncertainty

If the coordinator fails while participants are in PREPARED state, those participants are blocked. They cannot proceed—they cannot commit (they don't know if others prepared) and they cannot abort (perhaps the coordinator decided to commit). This is the famous blocking problem of 2PC.

Converting Mermaid diagram...

Message Flow Visualization

Let's trace through a complete successful 2PC execution with three participants to see how the messages flow and how state transitions occur.

Scenario: A distributed transaction T spans three database servers (P1, P2, P3). The transaction coordinator (C) manages the commit process.

Timeline of Events:

2PC Message Sequence for Successful Commit
Time	Actor	Action	State After
t0	Client	Request COMMIT for transaction T
t1	Coordinator	Log <PREPARE T>, send PREPARE to P1, P2, P3	WAIT
t2	P1	Receive PREPARE, can commit, log <PREPARED>, send VOTE_COMMIT	PREPARED
t3	P2	Receive PREPARE, can commit, log <PREPARED>, send VOTE_COMMIT	PREPARED
t4	P3	Receive PREPARE, can commit, log <PREPARED>, send VOTE_COMMIT	PREPARED
t5	Coordinator	Receive all VOTE_COMMIT, log <COMMIT T>, send GLOBAL_COMMIT	COMMIT
t6	P1	Receive GLOBAL_COMMIT, log <COMMIT>, commit locally, send ACK	COMMITTED
t7	P2	Receive GLOBAL_COMMIT, log <COMMIT>, commit locally, send ACK	COMMITTED
t8	P3	Receive GLOBAL_COMMIT, log <COMMIT>, commit locally, send ACK	COMMITTED
t9	Coordinator	Receive all ACKs, log <END T>	END

Converting Mermaid diagram...

Abort Scenario:

Now consider a case where P2 cannot commit (perhaps due to a constraint violation):

P1 and P3 vote VOTE_COMMIT
P2 votes VOTE_ABORT
Coordinator decides GLOBAL_ABORT
P1 and P3 rollback their prepared work
P2 has already aborted

The key insight: P2's abort vote vetoes the entire transaction. This preserves atomicity—either all participants commit or none do.

Logging and Write-Ahead Protocol

The correctness of 2PC depends critically on write-ahead logging (WAL) and the force-write discipline. Every state transition must be logged to stable storage before the corresponding message is sent. This ensures that crashes can be recovered correctly.

Write-Ahead Logging Rules for 2PC:

Coordinator Logging Rules

•Log <PREPARE T> before sending PREPARE to any participant — Records that the prepare phase has begun
•Log <COMMIT T> before sending GLOBAL_COMMIT to any participant — This is the commit point; after this record is on disk, the transaction MUST commit
•Log <ABORT T> before sending GLOBAL_ABORT to any participant — Records the abort decision for recovery
•Log <END T> after receiving all acknowledgments — Signals that the transaction is complete and can be forgotten

Participant Logging Rules

•Log <PREPARED T> before sending VOTE_COMMIT — Records the promise to follow coordinator's decision; includes undo/redo information
•Log <ABORT T> if voting abort or after receiving GLOBAL_ABORT — Records the abort for recovery
•Log <COMMIT T> after receiving GLOBAL_COMMIT — Records successful completion

The Force-Write Requirement

These log records must be force-written to stable storage (typically using fsync or equivalent). They cannot remain in volatile buffer cache. If a crash occurs after a log record is written but before the corresponding action, recovery can correctly handle the situation. If the log record were still in volatile memory, it would be lost, and recovery would produce incorrect results.

Log Contents:

The log records contain essential information for recovery:

<PREPARE T>:

Transaction ID
List of participants
Timeout value

<PREPARED T> (at participant):

Transaction ID
Coordinator identity
All undo/redo information for local changes

<COMMIT T>:

Transaction ID
List of participants (at coordinator)

<ABORT T>:

Transaction ID

<END T>:

Transaction ID
Signal that all participants have acknowledged

Properties of Two-Phase Commit

The Two-Phase Commit protocol provides several important guarantees, but also has notable limitations. Understanding these properties is essential for correct application.

Safety Properties (Always Hold):

Safety Guarantees

•Atomicity: If any participant commits, all participants eventually commit. If any participant aborts, no participant commits. This is the core guarantee.
•Consistency: The protocol never leaves the distributed database in an inconsistent state where some participants have committed and others have aborted.
•Agreement: All participants that reach a terminal state reach the SAME terminal state (all COMMITTED or all ABORTED).
•Validity: If all participants vote COMMIT and there are no failures, the transaction commits. The protocol doesn't abort unnecessarily in the failure-free case.

Liveness Properties (Hold Under Conditions):

Unfortunately, 2PC has a significant limitation regarding liveness—specifically, it can block in certain failure scenarios.

The Blocking Problem

If the coordinator fails after sending PREPARE but before sending the global decision, participants in the PREPARED state are blocked. They cannot commit (they don't know if all others prepared) and cannot abort (perhaps the coordinator decided to commit). These participants hold their locks indefinitely, blocking other transactions that conflict with them.

Strengths of 2PC

•Guarantees atomicity across distributed nodes
•Relatively simple to understand and implement
•Works correctly despite network partitions
•Widely supported by databases and transaction monitors
•Optimal in terms of message complexity (4n messages)

Limitations of 2PC

•Blocking protocol—participants can be stuck indefinitely
•Coordinator is a single point of failure
•Performance impact from synchronous logging
•Locks held during entire commit process
•Latency depends on slowest participant

Summary: Two-Phase Commit Foundations

We've established the foundational understanding of the Two-Phase Commit protocol, the canonical solution for distributed transaction atomicity. Let's consolidate the key insights:

Key Takeaways

•Phase 1 (Prepare): The coordinator gathers votes from all participants. Each participant either promises to commit (VOTE_COMMIT) or aborts (VOTE_ABORT).
•Phase 2 (Commit): Based on unanimous consent, the coordinator instructs all participants to either COMMIT or ABORT together.
•Prepare State: Once a participant votes COMMIT, it enters the PREPARED state—a binding promise to follow the coordinator's decision.
•Write-Ahead Logging: All state transitions must be logged to stable storage before the corresponding message is sent, ensuring crash recovery.
•Atomicity Guarantee: 2PC ensures that all participants either commit or abort together—never a mix.
•The Blocking Problem: 2PC can block if the coordinator fails while participants are prepared—a fundamental limitation addressed by 3PC.

What's Next:

The next page examines the Coordinator Role in depth—how the coordinator manages the protocol, tracks participant states, handles timeouts, and ensures reliable recovery. Understanding the coordinator's responsibilities is essential for implementing robust distributed transactions.

Page Complete

You now understand the Two-Phase Commit protocol—its motivation, mechanics, and properties. Next, we'll dive deep into the coordinator's responsibilities and see how it orchestrates the entire distributed transaction process.

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Database Management SystemsDistributed Transactions

Distributed Transactions

LevelAdvanced

Duration75 mins

TopicDistributed Transactions

1 / 5

Two-Phase Commit (2PC)

The Fundamental Challenge of Distributed Atomicity

What You Will Learn

The Distributed Atomicity Problem

The Core Problem:

A distributed transaction involves multiple participants—independent processes or nodes that each hold a portion of the data being accessed. For atomicity, we require:

All-or-Nothing Execution: Either every participant commits the transaction, or none of them do
Unanimous Agreement: If any participant cannot commit (due to constraint violations, deadlocks, or failures), then no participant commits
Irrevocability: Once a participant commits, it cannot later abort (and vice versa)
Eventual Termination: The protocol must eventually reach a decision, not remain indefinitely uncertain

These requirements seem intuitive, but achieving them in the presence of unreliable networks and node failures is remarkably subtle.

The Impossibility Result

Why Simple Approaches Fail:

A naive approach might have each participant independently decide to commit once its local work succeeds. But this fails catastrophically:

Participant A completes its local work and commits
Participant B encounters a constraint violation and must abort
Result: Inconsistent state—A has committed changes that B has not

Another naive approach might have a central coordinator simply tell everyone to commit. But this also fails:

Coordinator sends 'COMMIT' to all participants
Participant A commits successfully
Participant B crashes before receiving the message
Result: A has committed, B has not—inconsistency persists

The fundamental insight is that we need a protocol where every participant's ability to commit is verified before any participant actually commits. This is the core idea behind Two-Phase Commit.

Two-Phase Commit Protocol Overview

The Two-Phase Commit (2PC) protocol, introduced by Jim Gray in 1978, is the canonical solution to the atomic commitment problem. The name derives from its two distinct phases:

Prepare Phase (Voting Phase): The coordinator queries all participants to determine if they can commit
Commit Phase (Decision Phase): Based on the votes, the coordinator instructs all participants to either commit or abort

Two-Phase Commit Protocol Phases
Phase	Initiator	Message Flow	Purpose
Phase 1: Prepare	Coordinator	Coordinator → Participants (PREPARE)	Gather votes on commit readiness
Phase 1 Response	Participants	Participants → Coordinator (VOTE_COMMIT / VOTE_ABORT)	Report local commit capability
Phase 2: Commit/Abort	Coordinator	Coordinator → Participants (COMMIT / ABORT)	Enforce global decision
Phase 2 Response	Participants	Participants → Coordinator (ACK)	Confirm completion

Protocol Actors:

The 2PC protocol involves two types of actors:

Coordinator (Transaction Manager):

Initiates and manages the distributed transaction
Sends PREPARE messages to all participants
Collects votes and makes the global commit/abort decision
Logs decisions to stable storage for recovery
Sends the final decision to all participants

Participants (Resource Managers):

Execute local portions of the transaction
Respond to PREPARE with their vote (VOTE_COMMIT or VOTE_ABORT)
Follow the coordinator's final decision
Log their state transitions for recovery

Typically, the client application interacts only with the coordinator, which orchestrates the entire distributed transaction transparently.

Phase 1: The Prepare Phase

The Prepare Phase is the heart of the 2PC protocol—it ensures that every participant can commit before any participant is instructed to do so. Here is the precise sequence of events:

Step 1: Coordinator Initiates Prepare

When the application requests to commit the distributed transaction, the coordinator:

Writes a <PREPARE T> record to its local stable log
Sends a PREPARE message to all participants
Sets a timeout timer for collecting votes

Step 2: Participant Processes PREPARE

Upon receiving the PREPARE message, each participant decides whether it can commit.

If the participant CAN commit:

It writes a <PREPARED T> record to its stable log
It replies with VOTE_COMMIT
It enters the prepared state (also called the uncertain state)
It releases no locks—resources remain locked!

If the participant CANNOT commit (constraint violation, deadlock, resource unavailable):

It writes an <ABORT T> record to its stable log
It replies with VOTE_ABORT
It aborts its local portion and releases locks
It need not wait for the coordinator's decision—the transaction will abort

The Critical Prepared State

The Durability of PREPARED:

The <PREPARED T> log record is absolutely critical. By writing this record to stable storage before voting VOTE_COMMIT, the participant ensures that:

If it crashes: Upon recovery, it can determine from its log that it voted to commit and must wait for the coordinator's decision
If it is in doubt: It knows to query the coordinator rather than unilaterally aborting

Why Voting COMMIT is Irrevocable:

Once a participant votes VOTE_COMMIT, it cannot unilaterally abort. Consider this scenario:

Participant P1 votes VOTE_COMMIT
Participant P2 also votes VOTE_COMMIT
Coordinator decides COMMIT
P1 crashes before receiving COMMIT, recovers, and unilaterally aborts
Result: P2 has committed, P1 has aborted—inconsistency!

By making VOTE_COMMIT irrevocable and logging it durably, we prevent this inconsistency.

prepare-phase-pseudocode.txt
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COORDINATOR: Initiate Prepare Phase
────────────────────────────────────────────
function prepare_phase(transaction T, participants P[]):
    // Step 1: Log prepare initiation
    log_to_stable_storage(<PREPARE T>)
    
    // Step 2: Send PREPARE to all participants
    for each participant p in P[]:
        send(p, PREPARE, T)
    
    // Step 3: Collect votes with timeout
    votes = {}
    start_timer(PREPARE_TIMEOUT)
    
    while not all_votes_received(P[], votes):
        if timeout_expired():
            return GLOBAL_ABORT  // Missing vote = veto
        
        msg = receive_message()
        if msg.type == VOTE_COMMIT or msg.type == VOTE_ABORT:
            votes[msg.sender] = msg.type
    
    // Step 4: Determine global decision
    if all(vote == VOTE_COMMIT for vote in votes.values()):
        return GLOBAL_COMMIT
    else:
        return GLOBAL_ABORT
 
 
PARTICIPANT: Process PREPARE Request
────────────────────────────────────────────
function handle_prepare(transaction T):
    if can_commit(T):
        // Durably record our promise before voting
        log_to_stable_storage(<PREPARED T>)
        
        // Enter prepared/uncertain state
        set_state(T, PREPARED)
        
        send(coordinator, VOTE_COMMIT, T)
    else:
        // Log abort and release resources
        log_to_stable_storage(<ABORT T>)
        
        release_locks(T)
        rollback_changes(T)
        
        send(coordinator, VOTE_ABORT, T)

Phase 2: The Commit Phase

Once the coordinator has collected all votes (or the timeout has expired), it enters the Commit Phase and makes a global decision.

Decision Rule:

The decision follows a simple but critical rule:

If ALL participants voted VOTE_COMMIT → Global decision is COMMIT
If ANY participant voted VOTE_ABORT OR any participant timed out → Global decision is ABORT

Coordinator Decision Matrix
Vote Pattern	Global Decision	Rationale
All VOTE_COMMIT	COMMIT	Universal agreement—safe to commit
At least one VOTE_ABORT	ABORT	Explicit rejection—cannot commit
At least one timeout/no response	ABORT	Cannot confirm consensus—abort to be safe
Mixed VOTE_COMMIT and VOTE_ABORT	ABORT	Any ABORT vetoes the transaction

Step-by-Step Commit Phase:

If Global Decision is COMMIT:

Coordinator writes <COMMIT T> to its stable log (this is the commit point)
Coordinator sends GLOBAL_COMMIT message to all participants
Each participant:
- Writes <COMMIT T> to its stable log
- Makes changes permanent (commit locally)
- Releases all locks
- Sends ACKNOWLEDGMENT to coordinator
Coordinator waits for all acknowledgments
Coordinator writes <END T> to log and forgets the transaction

If Global Decision is ABORT:

Coordinator writes <ABORT T> to its stable log
Coordinator sends GLOBAL_ABORT message to all participants
Each participant that was in PREPARED state:
- Writes <ABORT T> to its stable log
- Rolls back changes (undo local work)
- Releases all locks
- Sends ACKNOWLEDGMENT to coordinator
Coordinator waits for all acknowledgments
Coordinator writes <END T> to log and forgets the transaction

The Point of No Return

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COORDINATOR: Commit Phase
────────────────────────────────────────────
function commit_phase(transaction T, decision, participants P[]):
    if decision == GLOBAL_COMMIT:
        // THE COMMIT POINT - once logged, transaction MUST commit
        log_to_stable_storage(<COMMIT T>)
        
        // Inform all participants of commit decision
        for each participant p in P[]:
            send(p, GLOBAL_COMMIT, T)
        
    else:  // decision == GLOBAL_ABORT
        log_to_stable_storage(<ABORT T>)
        
        // Inform participants that voted COMMIT (others already aborted)
        for each participant p that voted VOTE_COMMIT:
            send(p, GLOBAL_ABORT, T)
    
    // Collect acknowledgments (with retry for reliability)
    acks = {}
    while not all_acks_received(P[], acks):
        for each p not in acks:
            resend_decision(p, decision, T)  // Retry if needed
        
        msg = receive_message()
        if msg.type == ACK:
            acks[msg.sender] = true
    
    // Transaction complete
    log_to_stable_storage(<END T>)
    forget_transaction(T)
 
 
PARTICIPANT: Process Global Decision
────────────────────────────────────────────
function handle_global_decision(transaction T, decision):
    if decision == GLOBAL_COMMIT:
        // Make changes permanent
        log_to_stable_storage(<COMMIT T>)
        commit_local_changes(T)
        release_locks(T)
        
    else:  // decision == GLOBAL_ABORT
        // Undo any prepared work
        log_to_stable_storage(<ABORT T>)
        rollback_changes(T)
        release_locks(T)
    
    // Acknowledge completion to coordinator
    send(coordinator, ACK, T)
    
    // Clean up local transaction state
    forget_transaction(T)

Protocol State Diagrams

Coordinator States:

INITIAL: Transaction is active, running normally
WAIT: Sent PREPARE, waiting for votes from participants
COMMIT: Decided to commit, sending GLOBAL_COMMIT
ABORT: Decided to abort, sending GLOBAL_ABORT
END: Transaction completed, resources freed

Participant States:

INITIAL: Executing local transaction operations
PREPARED (UNCERTAIN): Voted VOTE_COMMIT, waiting for global decision
COMMITTED: Received GLOBAL_COMMIT, applied changes permanently
ABORTED: Either voted VOTE_ABORT or received GLOBAL_ABORT

Converting Mermaid diagram...

The Critical PREPARED State:

The PREPARED state for participants is uniquely important—and uniquely dangerous. A participant in the PREPARED state:

Has promised to follow the coordinator's decision
Cannot unilaterally abort or commit
Is holding locks that block other transactions
Must wait for the coordinator to resolve the uncertainty

Converting Mermaid diagram...

Message Flow Visualization

Let's trace through a complete successful 2PC execution with three participants to see how the messages flow and how state transitions occur.

Scenario: A distributed transaction T spans three database servers (P1, P2, P3). The transaction coordinator (C) manages the commit process.

Timeline of Events:

2PC Message Sequence for Successful Commit
Time	Actor	Action	State After
t0	Client	Request COMMIT for transaction T
t1	Coordinator	Log <PREPARE T>, send PREPARE to P1, P2, P3	WAIT
t2	P1	Receive PREPARE, can commit, log <PREPARED>, send VOTE_COMMIT	PREPARED
t3	P2	Receive PREPARE, can commit, log <PREPARED>, send VOTE_COMMIT	PREPARED
t4	P3	Receive PREPARE, can commit, log <PREPARED>, send VOTE_COMMIT	PREPARED
t5	Coordinator	Receive all VOTE_COMMIT, log <COMMIT T>, send GLOBAL_COMMIT	COMMIT
t6	P1	Receive GLOBAL_COMMIT, log <COMMIT>, commit locally, send ACK	COMMITTED
t7	P2	Receive GLOBAL_COMMIT, log <COMMIT>, commit locally, send ACK	COMMITTED
t8	P3	Receive GLOBAL_COMMIT, log <COMMIT>, commit locally, send ACK	COMMITTED
t9	Coordinator	Receive all ACKs, log <END T>	END

Converting Mermaid diagram...

Abort Scenario:

Now consider a case where P2 cannot commit (perhaps due to a constraint violation):

P1 and P3 vote VOTE_COMMIT
P2 votes VOTE_ABORT
Coordinator decides GLOBAL_ABORT
P1 and P3 rollback their prepared work
P2 has already aborted

The key insight: P2's abort vote vetoes the entire transaction. This preserves atomicity—either all participants commit or none do.

Logging and Write-Ahead Protocol

Write-Ahead Logging Rules for 2PC:

Coordinator Logging Rules

•Log <PREPARE T> before sending PREPARE to any participant — Records that the prepare phase has begun
•Log <COMMIT T> before sending GLOBAL_COMMIT to any participant — This is the commit point; after this record is on disk, the transaction MUST commit
•Log <ABORT T> before sending GLOBAL_ABORT to any participant — Records the abort decision for recovery
•Log <END T> after receiving all acknowledgments — Signals that the transaction is complete and can be forgotten

Participant Logging Rules

•Log <PREPARED T> before sending VOTE_COMMIT — Records the promise to follow coordinator's decision; includes undo/redo information
•Log <ABORT T> if voting abort or after receiving GLOBAL_ABORT — Records the abort for recovery
•Log <COMMIT T> after receiving GLOBAL_COMMIT — Records successful completion

The Force-Write Requirement

Log Contents:

The log records contain essential information for recovery:

<PREPARE T>:

Transaction ID
List of participants
Timeout value

<PREPARED T> (at participant):

Transaction ID
Coordinator identity
All undo/redo information for local changes

<COMMIT T>:

Transaction ID
List of participants (at coordinator)

<ABORT T>:

Transaction ID

<END T>:

Transaction ID
Signal that all participants have acknowledged

Properties of Two-Phase Commit

The Two-Phase Commit protocol provides several important guarantees, but also has notable limitations. Understanding these properties is essential for correct application.

Safety Properties (Always Hold):

Safety Guarantees

•Atomicity: If any participant commits, all participants eventually commit. If any participant aborts, no participant commits. This is the core guarantee.
•Consistency: The protocol never leaves the distributed database in an inconsistent state where some participants have committed and others have aborted.
•Agreement: All participants that reach a terminal state reach the SAME terminal state (all COMMITTED or all ABORTED).
•Validity: If all participants vote COMMIT and there are no failures, the transaction commits. The protocol doesn't abort unnecessarily in the failure-free case.

Liveness Properties (Hold Under Conditions):

Unfortunately, 2PC has a significant limitation regarding liveness—specifically, it can block in certain failure scenarios.

The Blocking Problem

Strengths of 2PC

•Guarantees atomicity across distributed nodes
•Relatively simple to understand and implement
•Works correctly despite network partitions
•Widely supported by databases and transaction monitors
•Optimal in terms of message complexity (4n messages)

Limitations of 2PC

•Blocking protocol—participants can be stuck indefinitely
•Coordinator is a single point of failure
•Performance impact from synchronous logging
•Locks held during entire commit process
•Latency depends on slowest participant

Summary: Two-Phase Commit Foundations

We've established the foundational understanding of the Two-Phase Commit protocol, the canonical solution for distributed transaction atomicity. Let's consolidate the key insights:

Key Takeaways

•Phase 1 (Prepare): The coordinator gathers votes from all participants. Each participant either promises to commit (VOTE_COMMIT) or aborts (VOTE_ABORT).
•Phase 2 (Commit): Based on unanimous consent, the coordinator instructs all participants to either COMMIT or ABORT together.
•Prepare State: Once a participant votes COMMIT, it enters the PREPARED state—a binding promise to follow the coordinator's decision.
•Write-Ahead Logging: All state transitions must be logged to stable storage before the corresponding message is sent, ensuring crash recovery.
•Atomicity Guarantee: 2PC ensures that all participants either commit or abort together—never a mix.
•The Blocking Problem: 2PC can block if the coordinator fails while participants are prepared—a fundamental limitation addressed by 3PC.

What's Next:

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