Computer NetworksData Link Layer

Framing - Bit Stuffing

LevelIntermediate

Duration75 mins

TopicData Link Layer

1 / 5

Flag Pattern - The Bit-Level Frame Delimiter

The Challenge of Frame Boundaries at the Bit Level

In the physical realm of data communication, everything reduces to a continuous stream of electrical signals, light pulses, or radio waves. At this fundamental level, there are no inherent boundaries—just an unbroken sequence of bits flowing from sender to receiver. Yet network protocols require discrete units called frames, and the receiver must determine exactly where each frame begins and ends.

This is the framing problem, and its solution at the bit level represents one of the most elegant applications of pattern-based delimitation in computer networking. Unlike byte-oriented approaches that work with 8-bit characters, bit stuffing operates directly on the bit stream, inserting and removing individual bits to maintain frame boundaries without ambiguity.

At the heart of bit stuffing lies the flag pattern—a carefully chosen bit sequence that marks frame boundaries with mathematical precision.

What You Will Master

By the end of this page, you will understand the precise binary structure of flag patterns, the mathematical reasoning behind the specific bit sequence chosen, how flags enable unambiguous frame delimitation, and the fundamental principles that make bit stuffing work reliably across all data patterns.

Understanding the Bit Stream Problem

To appreciate the elegance of flag patterns, we must first understand the fundamental challenge they solve. Consider what happens at the physical layer:

The Continuous Signal Reality:

When a sender transmits data, the physical layer converts bits into signals:

In wired networks: voltage levels, current changes, or light intensities
In wireless networks: electromagnetic wave modulations

These signals form a continuous stream with no natural "gaps" or "boundaries." The receiver samples this stream and recovers a sequence of 1s and 0s, but has no inherent way to know where one frame ends and another begins.

Why Frame Boundaries Matter:

Without clear frame boundaries, the receiver cannot:

Identify the start of a frame's header fields
Determine where the payload begins
Locate the error-checking CRC at the correct position
Know when a frame is complete and can be processed
Recover from transmission errors that corrupt frame contents

Frame Boundary Detection Challenges
Challenge	Description	Consequence Without Solution
Start Detection	Identifying first bit of a new frame	Headers interpreted at wrong position; complete parsing failure
End Detection	Identifying last bit before next frame	CRC validation fails; data from next frame incorrectly included
Synchronization	Maintaining alignment during continuous transmission	Gradual drift in frame boundaries; cascading errors
Error Recovery	Re-establishing boundaries after bit errors	Single error can corrupt unlimited subsequent frames
Idle Detection	Distinguishing empty channel from valid data	Cannot determine if transmission has ended or is paused

The Pattern-Based Solution:

The solution emerges from a fundamental insight: if we designate a specific, unique bit pattern as the frame delimiter, and ensure that pattern never appears within the frame's payload, the receiver can scan the bit stream and unambiguously identify frame boundaries.

This pattern is called the flag, and its careful design enables reliable framing across any possible data content.

The Standard Flag Pattern: 01111110

The universally adopted flag pattern in bit stuffing protocols is the 8-bit sequence 01111110 (hexadecimal 0x7E, decimal 126). This specific pattern was not chosen arbitrarily—it represents a carefully engineered solution to multiple constraints.

Breaking Down the Pattern:

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Flag Pattern Binary Analysis:
01111110
 
Bit Position:  7  6  5  4  3  2  1  0
Bit Value:     0  1  1  1  1  1  1  0
 
Structure:
┌───┬───────────────────────────┬───┐
│ 0 │    Six consecutive 1s    │ 0 │
└───┴───────────────────────────┴───┘
 
Hexadecimal: 0x7E
Decimal:     126
Octal:       0176
 
Pattern Properties:
• Total length: 8 bits (1 byte)
• Contains exactly 6 consecutive ones
• Bounded by zeros on both sides
• Self-delimiting: zeros prevent pattern extension

Why Six Consecutive Ones?

The choice of six consecutive 1s is critical to the bit stuffing algorithm's efficiency:

1. Detection Simplicity: The receiver needs only to count consecutive 1s. When it sees six 1s followed by a 0, it has found a flag. This requires minimal state machine complexity—just a counter and a comparison.

2. Stuffing Trigger Point: The bit stuffing algorithm inserts a 0 after five consecutive 1s. This means:

Normal data can contain up to five consecutive 1s
Six consecutive 1s can only appear in a flag
The algorithm has a 1-bit "margin" before unintentional flag creation

3. Overhead Optimization: With five 1s as the trigger:

Random data averages one stuffed bit per 32 data bits (≈3% overhead)
Worst-case data (all 1s) adds one stuffed bit per 5 data bits (20% overhead)
These are acceptable overhead levels for most applications

Why Not Fewer or More Ones?

Using fewer consecutive 1s (e.g., 4) would increase stuffing frequency, adding more overhead. Using more (e.g., 7 or 8) would reduce overhead but require longer patterns and make the flag less distinguishable from extended runs of 1s. Six 1s represents the optimal balance between overhead and detection reliability.

Mathematical Properties of the Flag Pattern

Understanding the mathematical properties of the 01111110 flag pattern reveals why it's exceptionally well-suited for frame delimitation.

Property 1: Self-Delimiting Nature

The flag pattern cannot be extended to form a longer valid pattern. Consider what happens when we add bits:

Adding a 1 before: 101111110 — Contains internal flag pattern
Adding a 0 before: 001111110 — Merely shifts position; flag still detectable
Adding a 1 after: 011111101 — Contains internal flag pattern
Adding a 0 after: 011111100 — Merely adds trailing zero; flag still detectable

This self-delimiting property means that once a receiver detects the pattern, it knows the exact boundary position without ambiguity.

Property 2: Uniqueness Under Stuffing

flag-uniqueness-proof.txt
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Proof: Flag Pattern Cannot Appear in Stuffed Data
================================================
 
Theorem: After bit stuffing (inserting 0 after 5 consecutive 1s),
         the pattern 01111110 cannot appear in the stuffed data.
 
Proof by exhaustion:
 
Consider the 6 ones in 01111110 at positions [1,2,3,4,5,6]:
 
Case 1: All 6 ones are from original data
        After stuffing: 011111(0)10 → Contains stuffed 0
        Pattern broken: ✓
 
Case 2: 5 ones from data + 1 stuffed bit
        Impossible: Stuffed bits are always 0, not 1
        Pattern cannot form: ✓
 
Case 3: Ones span across stuffed zero
        Example: data = 1111101111
        Before: 111110|1111
        After:  11111(0)01111(0)0
        Six consecutive 1s cannot span a 0: ✓
 
Conclusion: The only way 01111110 appears in the stream
            is when intentionally transmitted as a flag.

Property 3: Detection State Machine Simplicity

The flag can be detected with a simple finite state machine that requires only 7 states:

Converting Mermaid diagram...

Property 4: Clock Recovery Assistance

The flag pattern provides guaranteed transitions (0→1 and 1→0), which help the receiver maintain bit synchronization. Even during idle periods when flags are transmitted continuously, the receiver has regular signal transitions to lock onto.

Property 5: Hamming Distance Considerations

The flag 01111110 has a Hamming distance of at least 2 from any pattern that could accidentally form through single-bit errors in properly stuffed data. This provides inherent resistance to single-bit corruption causing false frame boundary detection.

Frame Structure with Flag Delimiters

With the flag pattern defined, we can now understand the complete frame structure in bit-stuffing protocols. The flags serve as bookends, clearly marking where each frame begins and ends.

Standard Frame Format:

frame-structure.txt
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Bit-Stuffing Frame Structure:
 
┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                     Complete Frame on Wire                        │
├─────────┬─────────┬──────────┬─────────────────┬─────────┬───────┤
│ Opening │ Header  │ Control  │     Payload     │   CRC   │Closing│
│  Flag   │ Fields  │  Field   │  (Stuffed Data) │         │ Flag  │
├─────────┼─────────┼──────────┼─────────────────┼─────────┼───────┤
│01111110 │ 8-16+   │  8-16    │  Variable bits  │ 16-32   │0111110│
│(8 bits) │  bits   │  bits    │  (after stuff.) │  bits   │(8bits)│
└─────────┴─────────┴──────────┴─────────────────┴─────────┴───────┘
 
Important: Everything between flags is subject to bit stuffing,
           including header, control, payload, and CRC fields.

Key Observations:

Stuffing Scope: Bit stuffing is applied to all fields between flags—not just the user payload. This includes:
- Address fields
- Control bytes
- Information payload
- Frame check sequence (CRC)
Flag Exclusivity: Flags themselves are never stuffed. They are transmitted as literal 01111110 patterns.
Shared Flags: In continuous transmission, the closing flag of one frame can serve as the opening flag of the next frame. This optimization reduces overhead:

shared-flags.txt
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Consecutive Frames with Shared Flags:
 
Without shared flags (wasteful):
┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┐
│01111110 │ Frame 1 │01111110 │01111110 │ Frame 2 │01111110 │
└─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┘
                     ^^^^^^^^^
                     Redundant!
 
With shared flags (efficient):
┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┐
│01111110 │ Frame 1 │01111110 │ Frame 2 │01111110 │
└─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┘
                     ^^^^^^^^^
                     Closes Frame 1 AND opens Frame 2
 
Savings: 8 bits per consecutive frame pair

Idle Channel Behavior

When the channel is idle (no data to transmit), transmitters typically send continuous flag sequences: 01111110011111100111111001111110... This serves dual purposes: it maintains receiver synchronization and clearly indicates the channel is available but no frames are pending.

Flag Detection Algorithm at the Receiver

The receiver must scan the incoming bit stream and reliably detect flag patterns while ignoring stuffed data bits. This detection process operates as a continuous finite state machine.

Detection State Machine Implementation:

flag_detector.py
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class FlagDetector:
    """
    Bit-by-bit flag pattern detector with integrated destuffing.
    
    State encoding:
    - State 0: Idle/searching (no consecutive 1s seen)
    - States 1-5: Counting consecutive 1s (1 to 5 seen)
    - State 6: Six 1s seen, awaiting final 0 for flag
    """
    
    def __init__(self):
        self.state = 0           # Current count of consecutive 1s
        self.in_frame = False    # True if between opening and closing flags
        self.data_buffer = []    # Accumulated frame bits (destuffed)
    
    def process_bit(self, bit: int) -> dict:
        """
        Process a single incoming bit.
        
        Returns a dictionary with:
        - 'event': None, 'flag_detected', 'data_bit', 'abort', 'stuffed_bit'
        - 'bit': the data bit value (if event is 'data_bit')
        """
        result = {'event': None, 'bit': None}
        
        if bit == 1:
            self.state += 1
            
            if self.state >= 7:
                # Seven or more consecutive 1s: ABORT sequence
                result['event'] = 'abort'
                self._reset_frame()
                
            elif self.state <= 5 and self.in_frame:
                # Normal data bit within frame
                result['event'] = 'data_bit'
                result['bit'] = 1
                self.data_buffer.append(1)
                
        else:  # bit == 0
            if self.state == 6:
                # Six 1s followed by 0: FLAG detected (01111110)
                result['event'] = 'flag_detected'
                
                if not self.in_frame:
                    # Opening flag: start new frame
                    self.in_frame = True
                    self.data_buffer = []
                else:
                    # Closing flag: frame complete
                    self.in_frame = False
                    # Note: Previous 6 ones were flag, not data
                    # Remove them from buffer if incorrectly added
                    self._trim_flag_ones()
                    
            elif self.state == 5 and self.in_frame:
                # Five 1s followed by 0: STUFFED bit, discard the 0
                result['event'] = 'stuffed_bit'
                # Do NOT add this 0 to the data buffer
                
            elif self.in_frame:
                # Normal data bit
                result['event'] = 'data_bit'
                result['bit'] = 0
                self.data_buffer.append(0)
            
            self.state = 0  # Reset consecutive 1s counter
        
        return result
    
    def _trim_flag_ones(self):
        """Remove the 6 ones that belong to closing flag."""
        if len(self.data_buffer) >= 6:
            self.data_buffer = self.data_buffer[:-6]
    
    def _reset_frame(self):
        """Abort current frame reception."""
        self.in_frame = False
        self.data_buffer = []
        self.state = 0
    
    def get_frame_data(self) -> list:
        """Return accumulated frame data bits."""
        return self.data_buffer.copy()
 
 
# Demonstration of flag detection
def demonstrate_flag_detection():
    detector = FlagDetector()
    
    # Sample bit stream: Flag + Data + Flag
    # Flag: 01111110
    # Data: 11100011 (after stuffing might change)
    bit_stream = [0,1,1,1,1,1,1,0,  # Opening flag
                  1,1,1,0,0,0,1,1,  # Data bits
                  0,1,1,1,1,1,1,0]  # Closing flag
    
    print("Processing bit stream:")
    for i, bit in enumerate(bit_stream):
        result = detector.process_bit(bit)
        if result['event']:
            print(f"  Bit {i}: {bit} -> {result['event']}", end="")
            if result['bit'] is not None:
                print(f" (value: {result['bit']})", end="")
            print()
    
    print(f"\nExtracted frame data: {detector.get_frame_data()}")
 
if __name__ == "__main__":
    demonstrate_flag_detection()

Critical Detection Rules:

Six 1s + 0 = Flag: This is the only valid flag sequence. The final 0 confirms the flag.
Five 1s + 0 = Stuffed Bit: The 0 after five 1s is a stuffed bit inserted by the sender. The receiver discards it.
Seven or More 1s = Abort: This intentional "abort" sequence indicates the sender is canceling the current frame. Useful when transmission errors are detected mid-frame.
State Machine Never Stalls: Every incoming bit advances the state machine. There are no waiting states or timeouts in the flag detection logic itself.

Handling Edge Cases

Real implementations must handle various edge cases: partial flags at connection startup, glitches causing spurious 1s, and frames with no data (flag immediately followed by flag). Robust flag detectors include timeout mechanisms and error counters to handle degraded channel conditions.

The Abort Sequence and Error Signaling

The flag pattern design includes a built-in mechanism for explicitly aborting a frame in progress. This is accomplished with the abort sequence: seven or more consecutive 1s.

Why Abort is Necessary:

During frame transmission, the sender might detect conditions requiring immediate frame cancellation:

Internal buffer underrun
Detection of transmitted errors via loopback
Higher-priority frame needs immediate transmission
Software-level abort request

Without an abort mechanism, the sender would need to complete the corrupted frame (wasting bandwidth) and let the receiver's CRC check fail (adding latency).

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Abort Sequence Analysis:
 
Normal Flag (Closing Frame):
01111110  →  Six 1s between zeros
         →  Receiver: "Frame complete, process it"
 
Abort Sequence (Cancel Frame):
01111111... →  Seven or more consecutive 1s
            →  Receiver: "Frame aborted, discard buffer"
 
Abort Sequence in Context:
┌─────────┬───────────────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────┐
│01111110 │  Partial Frame Data   │   0111111111    │01111110 │
│ (flag)  │  (may be corrupted)   │   (abort)       │ (flag)  │
└─────────┴───────────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────┘
                                   ^
                                   Sender: "Abort this frame!"
 
Receiver Behavior After Abort:
1. Immediately discard all buffered frame data
2. Wait for next valid opening flag
3. Resume normal frame reception
4. No error is reported to higher layers (abort is expected)

Distinguishing Abort from Valid Data:

Because bit stuffing inserts a 0 after every five consecutive 1s, it is impossible for seven consecutive 1s to appear in properly stuffed data:

Maximum consecutive 1s in data: 5 (then a 0 is stuffed)
Flag pattern contains: exactly 6 consecutive 1s (bounded by 0s)
Abort pattern requires: 7 or more consecutive 1s

This layered structure (5 for data, 6 for flags, 7+ for abort) creates three distinct signal levels using the same fundamental counting mechanism.

Abort as a Feature, Not a Bug

The abort sequence is a deliberate design feature enabling graceful error handling. It allows the transmitter to signal 'please ignore everything since the last flag' without completing an invalid frame. This is especially valuable in hardware implementations where stopping mid-transmission would leave the line in an undefined state.

Flag Patterns in Real Protocols

The 01111110 flag pattern is not just theoretical—it's the foundation of several widely-deployed protocols. Understanding its real-world usage solidifies the concepts we've covered.

HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control):

HDLC, standardized by ISO, is the archetypal bit-stuffing protocol. It uses 01111110 for all framing:

Protocols Using 01111110 Flag Pattern
Protocol	Standard/Usage	Specific Implementation Notes
HDLC	ISO 13239	Original bit-stuffing protocol; basis for many derivatives
SDLC	IBM Systems Network Architecture	Precursor to HDLC, similar flag mechanism
PPP	RFC 1662 (HDLC-like framing)	Uses 0x7E flag with byte stuffing OR bit stuffing
Frame Relay	ANSI T1.617	Uses HDLC framing at the physical layer
LAPB	X.25 Link Access Procedure	Link layer of X.25 packet networks
LAPD	ISDN D-channel (Q.921)	Signaling channel for ISDN networks
LAPF	Frame Relay Access (Q.922)	Data link for Frame Relay networks
Cisco HDLC	Proprietary encapsulation	Default serial line protocol on Cisco routers

PPP Special Case:

PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) offers two framing modes, configurable during negotiation:

HDLC-like Framing (Bit Stuffing): Traditional flag + bit stuffing as described
Byte Stuffing Mode: Uses 0x7E as byte delimiter with 0x7D escape sequences

Modern PPP implementations typically use synchronous links with bit stuffing or asynchronous links with byte stuffing, depending on the underlying physical layer.

Why the Same Flag Across Protocols?

The universal adoption of 01111110 enables:

Benefits of Standardized Flag Pattern

•Hardware Reuse: Same flag detection circuitry works across multiple protocols
•Protocol Interoperability: Easier to build multi-protocol devices and bridges
•Proven Reliability: Decades of field testing have validated the pattern's robustness
•Educational Consistency: Engineers trained on HDLC immediately understand LAPB, PPP, etc.
•Debugging Simplicity: Protocol analyzers using one flag pattern work across protocol families

Summary: The Flag Pattern Foundation

We have thoroughly explored the flag pattern—the fundamental building block of bit stuffing framing. Let's consolidate the essential concepts:

Key Takeaways

•Pattern Structure: The flag 01111110 consists of six consecutive 1s bounded by 0s, creating a unique 8-bit delimiter.
•Self-Delimiting Property: The pattern cannot be extended or accidentally formed within stuffed data, ensuring unambiguous detection.
•Detection Simplicity: A 7-state finite machine can detect flags while simultaneously identifying stuffed bits for removal.
•Shared Flag Efficiency: Closing and opening flags can be merged in consecutive frame transmission, saving bandwidth.
•Abort Mechanism: Seven or more consecutive 1s signal intentional frame cancellation, distinct from both data and flags.
•Universal Adoption: The 01111110 pattern is used in HDLC, PPP, Frame Relay, LAPB, LAPD, and many other protocols.

What's Next:

The flag pattern is only half the solution. To make it work, we need to prevent the pattern from appearing in frame data. The next page examines Bit Insertion—the algorithm that modifies the data stream to guarantee flag uniqueness while allowing transparent transmission of any data content.

Page Complete

You now understand the theoretical and practical foundations of flag patterns in bit-stuffing framing. The 01111110 pattern represents an elegant solution to frame delimitation that has stood the test of time across decades of networking evolution. Next, we'll see how bit insertion ensures this pattern remains unique.

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Loading learning content...

Computer NetworksData Link Layer

Framing - Bit Stuffing

LevelIntermediate

Duration75 mins

TopicData Link Layer

1 / 5

Flag Pattern - The Bit-Level Frame Delimiter

The Challenge of Frame Boundaries at the Bit Level

At the heart of bit stuffing lies the flag pattern—a carefully chosen bit sequence that marks frame boundaries with mathematical precision.

What You Will Master

Understanding the Bit Stream Problem

To appreciate the elegance of flag patterns, we must first understand the fundamental challenge they solve. Consider what happens at the physical layer:

The Continuous Signal Reality:

When a sender transmits data, the physical layer converts bits into signals:

In wired networks: voltage levels, current changes, or light intensities
In wireless networks: electromagnetic wave modulations

Why Frame Boundaries Matter:

Without clear frame boundaries, the receiver cannot:

Identify the start of a frame's header fields
Determine where the payload begins
Locate the error-checking CRC at the correct position
Know when a frame is complete and can be processed
Recover from transmission errors that corrupt frame contents

Frame Boundary Detection Challenges
Challenge	Description	Consequence Without Solution
Start Detection	Identifying first bit of a new frame	Headers interpreted at wrong position; complete parsing failure
End Detection	Identifying last bit before next frame	CRC validation fails; data from next frame incorrectly included
Synchronization	Maintaining alignment during continuous transmission	Gradual drift in frame boundaries; cascading errors
Error Recovery	Re-establishing boundaries after bit errors	Single error can corrupt unlimited subsequent frames
Idle Detection	Distinguishing empty channel from valid data	Cannot determine if transmission has ended or is paused

The Pattern-Based Solution:

This pattern is called the flag, and its careful design enables reliable framing across any possible data content.

The Standard Flag Pattern: 01111110

Breaking Down the Pattern:

flag-pattern-structure.txt
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Flag Pattern Binary Analysis:
01111110
 
Bit Position:  7  6  5  4  3  2  1  0
Bit Value:     0  1  1  1  1  1  1  0
 
Structure:
┌───┬───────────────────────────┬───┐
│ 0 │    Six consecutive 1s    │ 0 │
└───┴───────────────────────────┴───┘
 
Hexadecimal: 0x7E
Decimal:     126
Octal:       0176
 
Pattern Properties:
• Total length: 8 bits (1 byte)
• Contains exactly 6 consecutive ones
• Bounded by zeros on both sides
• Self-delimiting: zeros prevent pattern extension

Why Six Consecutive Ones?

The choice of six consecutive 1s is critical to the bit stuffing algorithm's efficiency:

2. Stuffing Trigger Point: The bit stuffing algorithm inserts a 0 after five consecutive 1s. This means:

Normal data can contain up to five consecutive 1s
Six consecutive 1s can only appear in a flag
The algorithm has a 1-bit "margin" before unintentional flag creation

3. Overhead Optimization: With five 1s as the trigger:

Random data averages one stuffed bit per 32 data bits (≈3% overhead)
Worst-case data (all 1s) adds one stuffed bit per 5 data bits (20% overhead)
These are acceptable overhead levels for most applications

Why Not Fewer or More Ones?

Mathematical Properties of the Flag Pattern

Understanding the mathematical properties of the 01111110 flag pattern reveals why it's exceptionally well-suited for frame delimitation.

Property 1: Self-Delimiting Nature

The flag pattern cannot be extended to form a longer valid pattern. Consider what happens when we add bits:

Adding a 1 before: 101111110 — Contains internal flag pattern
Adding a 0 before: 001111110 — Merely shifts position; flag still detectable
Adding a 1 after: 011111101 — Contains internal flag pattern
Adding a 0 after: 011111100 — Merely adds trailing zero; flag still detectable

This self-delimiting property means that once a receiver detects the pattern, it knows the exact boundary position without ambiguity.

Property 2: Uniqueness Under Stuffing

flag-uniqueness-proof.txt
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Proof: Flag Pattern Cannot Appear in Stuffed Data
================================================
 
Theorem: After bit stuffing (inserting 0 after 5 consecutive 1s),
         the pattern 01111110 cannot appear in the stuffed data.
 
Proof by exhaustion:
 
Consider the 6 ones in 01111110 at positions [1,2,3,4,5,6]:
 
Case 1: All 6 ones are from original data
        After stuffing: 011111(0)10 → Contains stuffed 0
        Pattern broken: ✓
 
Case 2: 5 ones from data + 1 stuffed bit
        Impossible: Stuffed bits are always 0, not 1
        Pattern cannot form: ✓
 
Case 3: Ones span across stuffed zero
        Example: data = 1111101111
        Before: 111110|1111
        After:  11111(0)01111(0)0
        Six consecutive 1s cannot span a 0: ✓
 
Conclusion: The only way 01111110 appears in the stream
            is when intentionally transmitted as a flag.

Property 3: Detection State Machine Simplicity

The flag can be detected with a simple finite state machine that requires only 7 states:

Converting Mermaid diagram...

Property 4: Clock Recovery Assistance

Property 5: Hamming Distance Considerations

Frame Structure with Flag Delimiters

With the flag pattern defined, we can now understand the complete frame structure in bit-stuffing protocols. The flags serve as bookends, clearly marking where each frame begins and ends.

Standard Frame Format:

frame-structure.txt
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Bit-Stuffing Frame Structure:
 
┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                     Complete Frame on Wire                        │
├─────────┬─────────┬──────────┬─────────────────┬─────────┬───────┤
│ Opening │ Header  │ Control  │     Payload     │   CRC   │Closing│
│  Flag   │ Fields  │  Field   │  (Stuffed Data) │         │ Flag  │
├─────────┼─────────┼──────────┼─────────────────┼─────────┼───────┤
│01111110 │ 8-16+   │  8-16    │  Variable bits  │ 16-32   │0111110│
│(8 bits) │  bits   │  bits    │  (after stuff.) │  bits   │(8bits)│
└─────────┴─────────┴──────────┴─────────────────┴─────────┴───────┘
 
Important: Everything between flags is subject to bit stuffing,
           including header, control, payload, and CRC fields.

Key Observations:

Stuffing Scope: Bit stuffing is applied to all fields between flags—not just the user payload. This includes:
- Address fields
- Control bytes
- Information payload
- Frame check sequence (CRC)
Flag Exclusivity: Flags themselves are never stuffed. They are transmitted as literal 01111110 patterns.
Shared Flags: In continuous transmission, the closing flag of one frame can serve as the opening flag of the next frame. This optimization reduces overhead:

shared-flags.txt
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Consecutive Frames with Shared Flags:
 
Without shared flags (wasteful):
┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┐
│01111110 │ Frame 1 │01111110 │01111110 │ Frame 2 │01111110 │
└─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┘
                     ^^^^^^^^^
                     Redundant!
 
With shared flags (efficient):
┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┐
│01111110 │ Frame 1 │01111110 │ Frame 2 │01111110 │
└─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┘
                     ^^^^^^^^^
                     Closes Frame 1 AND opens Frame 2
 
Savings: 8 bits per consecutive frame pair

Idle Channel Behavior

Flag Detection Algorithm at the Receiver

The receiver must scan the incoming bit stream and reliably detect flag patterns while ignoring stuffed data bits. This detection process operates as a continuous finite state machine.

Detection State Machine Implementation:

flag_detector.py
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class FlagDetector:
    """
    Bit-by-bit flag pattern detector with integrated destuffing.
    
    State encoding:
    - State 0: Idle/searching (no consecutive 1s seen)
    - States 1-5: Counting consecutive 1s (1 to 5 seen)
    - State 6: Six 1s seen, awaiting final 0 for flag
    """
    
    def __init__(self):
        self.state = 0           # Current count of consecutive 1s
        self.in_frame = False    # True if between opening and closing flags
        self.data_buffer = []    # Accumulated frame bits (destuffed)
    
    def process_bit(self, bit: int) -> dict:
        """
        Process a single incoming bit.
        
        Returns a dictionary with:
        - 'event': None, 'flag_detected', 'data_bit', 'abort', 'stuffed_bit'
        - 'bit': the data bit value (if event is 'data_bit')
        """
        result = {'event': None, 'bit': None}
        
        if bit == 1:
            self.state += 1
            
            if self.state >= 7:
                # Seven or more consecutive 1s: ABORT sequence
                result['event'] = 'abort'
                self._reset_frame()
                
            elif self.state <= 5 and self.in_frame:
                # Normal data bit within frame
                result['event'] = 'data_bit'
                result['bit'] = 1
                self.data_buffer.append(1)
                
        else:  # bit == 0
            if self.state == 6:
                # Six 1s followed by 0: FLAG detected (01111110)
                result['event'] = 'flag_detected'
                
                if not self.in_frame:
                    # Opening flag: start new frame
                    self.in_frame = True
                    self.data_buffer = []
                else:
                    # Closing flag: frame complete
                    self.in_frame = False
                    # Note: Previous 6 ones were flag, not data
                    # Remove them from buffer if incorrectly added
                    self._trim_flag_ones()
                    
            elif self.state == 5 and self.in_frame:
                # Five 1s followed by 0: STUFFED bit, discard the 0
                result['event'] = 'stuffed_bit'
                # Do NOT add this 0 to the data buffer
                
            elif self.in_frame:
                # Normal data bit
                result['event'] = 'data_bit'
                result['bit'] = 0
                self.data_buffer.append(0)
            
            self.state = 0  # Reset consecutive 1s counter
        
        return result
    
    def _trim_flag_ones(self):
        """Remove the 6 ones that belong to closing flag."""
        if len(self.data_buffer) >= 6:
            self.data_buffer = self.data_buffer[:-6]
    
    def _reset_frame(self):
        """Abort current frame reception."""
        self.in_frame = False
        self.data_buffer = []
        self.state = 0
    
    def get_frame_data(self) -> list:
        """Return accumulated frame data bits."""
        return self.data_buffer.copy()
 
 
# Demonstration of flag detection
def demonstrate_flag_detection():
    detector = FlagDetector()
    
    # Sample bit stream: Flag + Data + Flag
    # Flag: 01111110
    # Data: 11100011 (after stuffing might change)
    bit_stream = [0,1,1,1,1,1,1,0,  # Opening flag
                  1,1,1,0,0,0,1,1,  # Data bits
                  0,1,1,1,1,1,1,0]  # Closing flag
    
    print("Processing bit stream:")
    for i, bit in enumerate(bit_stream):
        result = detector.process_bit(bit)
        if result['event']:
            print(f"  Bit {i}: {bit} -> {result['event']}", end="")
            if result['bit'] is not None:
                print(f" (value: {result['bit']})", end="")
            print()
    
    print(f"\nExtracted frame data: {detector.get_frame_data()}")
 
if __name__ == "__main__":
    demonstrate_flag_detection()

Critical Detection Rules:

Six 1s + 0 = Flag: This is the only valid flag sequence. The final 0 confirms the flag.
Five 1s + 0 = Stuffed Bit: The 0 after five 1s is a stuffed bit inserted by the sender. The receiver discards it.
Seven or More 1s = Abort: This intentional "abort" sequence indicates the sender is canceling the current frame. Useful when transmission errors are detected mid-frame.
State Machine Never Stalls: Every incoming bit advances the state machine. There are no waiting states or timeouts in the flag detection logic itself.

Handling Edge Cases

The Abort Sequence and Error Signaling

The flag pattern design includes a built-in mechanism for explicitly aborting a frame in progress. This is accomplished with the abort sequence: seven or more consecutive 1s.

Why Abort is Necessary:

During frame transmission, the sender might detect conditions requiring immediate frame cancellation:

Internal buffer underrun
Detection of transmitted errors via loopback
Higher-priority frame needs immediate transmission
Software-level abort request

Without an abort mechanism, the sender would need to complete the corrupted frame (wasting bandwidth) and let the receiver's CRC check fail (adding latency).

abort-sequence.txt
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Abort Sequence Analysis:
 
Normal Flag (Closing Frame):
01111110  →  Six 1s between zeros
         →  Receiver: "Frame complete, process it"
 
Abort Sequence (Cancel Frame):
01111111... →  Seven or more consecutive 1s
            →  Receiver: "Frame aborted, discard buffer"
 
Abort Sequence in Context:
┌─────────┬───────────────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────┐
│01111110 │  Partial Frame Data   │   0111111111    │01111110 │
│ (flag)  │  (may be corrupted)   │   (abort)       │ (flag)  │
└─────────┴───────────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────┘
                                   ^
                                   Sender: "Abort this frame!"
 
Receiver Behavior After Abort:
1. Immediately discard all buffered frame data
2. Wait for next valid opening flag
3. Resume normal frame reception
4. No error is reported to higher layers (abort is expected)

Distinguishing Abort from Valid Data:

Because bit stuffing inserts a 0 after every five consecutive 1s, it is impossible for seven consecutive 1s to appear in properly stuffed data:

Maximum consecutive 1s in data: 5 (then a 0 is stuffed)
Flag pattern contains: exactly 6 consecutive 1s (bounded by 0s)
Abort pattern requires: 7 or more consecutive 1s

This layered structure (5 for data, 6 for flags, 7+ for abort) creates three distinct signal levels using the same fundamental counting mechanism.

Abort as a Feature, Not a Bug

Flag Patterns in Real Protocols

The 01111110 flag pattern is not just theoretical—it's the foundation of several widely-deployed protocols. Understanding its real-world usage solidifies the concepts we've covered.

HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control):

HDLC, standardized by ISO, is the archetypal bit-stuffing protocol. It uses 01111110 for all framing:

Protocols Using 01111110 Flag Pattern
Protocol	Standard/Usage	Specific Implementation Notes
HDLC	ISO 13239	Original bit-stuffing protocol; basis for many derivatives
SDLC	IBM Systems Network Architecture	Precursor to HDLC, similar flag mechanism
PPP	RFC 1662 (HDLC-like framing)	Uses 0x7E flag with byte stuffing OR bit stuffing
Frame Relay	ANSI T1.617	Uses HDLC framing at the physical layer
LAPB	X.25 Link Access Procedure	Link layer of X.25 packet networks
LAPD	ISDN D-channel (Q.921)	Signaling channel for ISDN networks
LAPF	Frame Relay Access (Q.922)	Data link for Frame Relay networks
Cisco HDLC	Proprietary encapsulation	Default serial line protocol on Cisco routers

PPP Special Case:

PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) offers two framing modes, configurable during negotiation:

HDLC-like Framing (Bit Stuffing): Traditional flag + bit stuffing as described
Byte Stuffing Mode: Uses 0x7E as byte delimiter with 0x7D escape sequences

Modern PPP implementations typically use synchronous links with bit stuffing or asynchronous links with byte stuffing, depending on the underlying physical layer.

Why the Same Flag Across Protocols?

The universal adoption of 01111110 enables:

Benefits of Standardized Flag Pattern

•Hardware Reuse: Same flag detection circuitry works across multiple protocols
•Protocol Interoperability: Easier to build multi-protocol devices and bridges
•Proven Reliability: Decades of field testing have validated the pattern's robustness
•Educational Consistency: Engineers trained on HDLC immediately understand LAPB, PPP, etc.
•Debugging Simplicity: Protocol analyzers using one flag pattern work across protocol families

Summary: The Flag Pattern Foundation

We have thoroughly explored the flag pattern—the fundamental building block of bit stuffing framing. Let's consolidate the essential concepts:

Key Takeaways

•Pattern Structure: The flag 01111110 consists of six consecutive 1s bounded by 0s, creating a unique 8-bit delimiter.
•Self-Delimiting Property: The pattern cannot be extended or accidentally formed within stuffed data, ensuring unambiguous detection.
•Detection Simplicity: A 7-state finite machine can detect flags while simultaneously identifying stuffed bits for removal.
•Shared Flag Efficiency: Closing and opening flags can be merged in consecutive frame transmission, saving bandwidth.
•Abort Mechanism: Seven or more consecutive 1s signal intentional frame cancellation, distinct from both data and flags.
•Universal Adoption: The 01111110 pattern is used in HDLC, PPP, Frame Relay, LAPB, LAPD, and many other protocols.

What's Next:

Page Complete

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