MAPE and SMAPE — Regression Metrics | OneNoughtOne

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Machine LearningModel Evaluation Metrics

Regression Metrics

LevelIntermediate

Duration90 mins

TopicModel Evaluation Metrics

4 / 5

MAPE and SMAPE

Errors as Percentages

Imagine explaining model performance to a business stakeholder: "Our RMSE is 1,250" \to "What does that mean?" "We're off by about 8% on average" \to "That sounds reasonable!" Percentage-based metrics express errors relative to the actual values, providing intuitive, scale-independent measures that stakeholders immediately understand. MAPE (Mean Absolute Percentage Error) and SMAPE (Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error) are the most widely used percentage error metrics, especially in forecasting and business contexts. But their apparent simplicity hides important subtleties.

What You Will Learn

By the end of this page, you will understand MAPE's mathematical definition and interpretation, why MAPE is undefined or infinite for zero values, asymmetry in MAPE and why it matters, SMAPE as a symmetric alternative, limitations of both metrics, and when to use percentage-based metrics vs. absolute metrics.

Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE)

MAPE measures the average absolute error as a percentage of the actual values: $$\text{MAPE} = \frac{100%}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \left| \frac{y_i - \hat{y}_i}{y_i} \right|$$ Or equivalently: $$\text{MAPE} = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \left| \frac{y_i - \hat{y}_i}{y_i} \right| \times 100%$$ Components: $(y_i - \hat{y}_i)$: The error (residual) $y_i$: The actual value (denominator) $|...|$: Absolute value to prevent cancellation $\frac{1}{n}$: Averaging over all samples $\times 100%$: Convert to percentage

mape_calculation.py
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import numpy as np
 
def mape(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray) -> float:
    """
    Compute Mean Absolute Percentage Error.
    
    Parameters:
    -----------
    y_true : np.ndarray
        Array of true values (must not contain zeros)
    y_pred : np.ndarray
        Array of predicted values
        
    Returns:
    --------
    float
        MAPE as a percentage (0-100+)
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    
    # Check for zeros in y_true
    if np.any(y_true == 0):
        raise ValueError("MAPE is undefined when y_true contains zeros")
    
    # Calculate percentage errors
    percentage_errors = np.abs((y_true - y_pred) / y_true)
    
    # Mean and convert to percentage
    return np.mean(percentage_errors) * 100
 
# Example: Sales forecasting
y_true = np.array([100, 200, 150, 300, 250])
y_pred = np.array([110, 190, 160, 280, 260])
 
mape_value = mape(y_true, y_pred)
 
print("=== MAPE Calculation ===")
print(f"Actual:    {y_true}")
print(f"Predicted: {y_pred}")
print(f"Errors:    {y_true - y_pred}")
print(f"
Percentage errors:")
for i in range(len(y_true)):
    pct = abs((y_true[i] - y_pred[i]) / y_true[i]) * 100
    print(f"  |({y_true[i]} - {y_pred[i]}) / {y_true[i]}| = {pct:.1f}%")
 
print(f"
MAPE: {mape_value:.2f}%")
print(f"
→ On average, predictions are off by {mape_value:.1f}% of actual values")

MAPE Interpretation Guidelines
MAPE Range	Interpretation	Typical Context
< 10%	Highly accurate	Mature, stable processes
10-20%	Good	Standard forecasting
20-50%	Reasonable	Volatile or early forecasts
50%	Poor	High uncertainty, may need different approach

Industry Standard

MAPE is extremely popular in demand forecasting, supply chain management, and financial planning. Its percentage format makes it easy to communicate across functions: 'Our sales forecast is accurate to within 15%' is immediately meaningful to executives.

The Zero Problem

MAPE has a fundamental mathematical problem: it's undefined when any actual value is zero. $$\frac{y_i - \hat{y}_i}{y_i} \text{ when } y_i = 0 \Rightarrow \frac{?}{0} = \text{undefined}$$ This isn't a theoretical edge case—it's a real problem in many domains: Demand forecasting: Products with zero sales on some days Energy consumption: Periods of zero usage Count data: Events that don't occur in some periods Financial returns: Zero returns are common

mape_zero_handling.py
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import numpy as np
from typing import Optional
 
def mape_with_zero_handling(
    y_true: np.ndarray, 
    y_pred: np.ndarray,
    zero_strategy: str = 'exclude'
) -> Optional[float]:
    """
    MAPE with different strategies for handling zeros.
    
    Parameters:
    -----------
    zero_strategy : str
        'exclude' - Skip samples where y_true = 0
        'replace' - Replace zeros with small value
        'weighted' - Use weighted MAPE (divide by sum of |y|)
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    
    if zero_strategy == 'exclude':
        # Simply exclude zero values
        mask = y_true != 0
        if not np.any(mask):
            return None
        y_true = y_true[mask]
        y_pred = y_pred[mask]
        return np.mean(np.abs((y_true - y_pred) / y_true)) * 100
    
    elif zero_strategy == 'replace':
        # Replace zeros with small value (problematic!)
        epsilon = 1e-10
        y_true_safe = np.where(y_true == 0, epsilon, y_true)
        return np.mean(np.abs((y_true - y_pred) / y_true_safe)) * 100
    
    elif zero_strategy == 'weighted':
        # Weighted MAPE: sum(|error|) / sum(|actual|)
        total_error = np.sum(np.abs(y_true - y_pred))
        total_actual = np.sum(np.abs(y_true))
        if total_actual == 0:
            return None
        return (total_error / total_actual) * 100
    
    else:
        raise ValueError(f"Unknown strategy: {zero_strategy}")
 
# Example with zeros
y_true = np.array([100, 0, 50, 200, 0, 150])
y_pred = np.array([110, 10, 55, 180, 5, 160])
 
print("=== Zero Handling Strategies ===")
print(f"Actual:    {y_true}")
print(f"Predicted: {y_pred}")
print()
 
for strategy in ['exclude', 'replace', 'weighted']:
    result = mape_with_zero_handling(y_true, y_pred, strategy)
    if result is not None:
        print(f"  {strategy:12s}: MAPE = {result:.2f}%")
    else:
        print(f"  {strategy:12s}: Cannot compute")
 
print("
*** Warning ***")
print("The 'replace' strategy can give misleading results!")
print("A zero actual with prediction of 10 gives:")
print(f"  |(0 - 10) / 1e-10| = {abs(10/1e-10):.0e} (astronomical!)")

Zero-Handling Strategies and Tradeoffs

•Exclude zeros: Simple but loses data; may bias results if zeros are informative
•Replace with small ε: Introduces huge percentage errors; generally not recommended
•Weighted MAPE (WMAPE): Total error / Total actual; handles zeros but changes interpretation
•Use different metric: MAE, MSE, or SMAPE may be more appropriate for data with zeros

Know Your Data

Before using MAPE, check for zeros in your target variable. If zeros are common or meaningful, MAPE may not be the right metric. Consider SMAPE, MAE, or domain-specific alternatives.

MAPE Asymmetry: A Hidden Bias

MAPE has a subtle but important bias: it penalizes over-predictions more heavily than under-predictions (relative to the prediction magnitude). Consider: Actual = 100, Predicted = 150 (over-prediction by 50) MAPE contribution: $|100-150|/100 = 50%$ Actual = 100, Predicted = 50 (under-prediction by 50) MAPE contribution: $|100-50|/100 = 50%$ Same absolute error, same MAPE. But what if we flip the perspective?

mape_asymmetry.py
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import numpy as np
 
def demonstrate_mape_asymmetry():
    """
    Show how MAPE is asymmetric in a way that favors under-prediction.
    """
    print("=== MAPE Asymmetry Demonstration ===
")
    
    # Case 1: Over-predict
    y_true_1 = np.array([100])
    y_pred_over = np.array([200])  # Predict double
    mape_over = abs((100 - 200) / 100) * 100
    
    # Case 2: Under-predict
    y_true_2 = np.array([200])
    y_pred_under = np.array([100])  # Predict half
    mape_under = abs((200 - 100) / 200) * 100
    
    print("Scenario: Predictions are off by a factor of 2")
    print("
1. Over-prediction (predict 200 when actual is 100):")
    print(f"   Error = |100 - 200| = 100")
    print(f"   MAPE = 100/100 = {mape_over:.0f}%")
    
    print("
2. Under-prediction (predict 100 when actual is 200):")
    print(f"   Error = |200 - 100| = 100")  
    print(f"   MAPE = 100/200 = {mape_under:.0f}%")
    
    print(f"
*** Same factor of 2 error, but: ***")
    print(f"   Over-prediction MAPE: {mape_over:.0f}%")
    print(f"   Under-prediction MAPE: {mape_under:.0f}%")
    print("
→ Under-predictions look 'better' in MAPE!")
    
    # Impact on model optimization
    print("
=== Impact on Optimization ===")
    print("If you minimize MAPE during training, the model will")
    print("learn to systematically UNDER-predict to achieve lower MAPE.")
    
    # Demonstrate with multiple predictions
    actual = 100
    print(f"
Actual value: {actual}")
    print(f"{'Prediction':>12} | {'Error':>8} | {'% Error':>10}")
    print("-" * 40)
    for pred in [50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 200]:
        error = abs(actual - pred)
        pct_error = error / actual * 100
        print(f"{pred:>12} | {error:>8} | {pct_error:>9.1f}%")
 
demonstrate_mape_asymmetry()

Why Does This Happen? MAPE divides by the actual value, not the predicted value or their average. Since: $\frac{|y - \hat{y}|}{y}$ when $\hat{y} > y$ → error/smaller number = bigger percentage $\frac{|y - \hat{y}|}{y}$ when $\hat{y} < y$ → error/larger number = smaller percentage Practical Implications Forecasting bias: Models optimized on MAPE tend to under-forecast Inventory impact: Under-forecasting leads to stockouts Revenue impact: Under-forecasting can lead to under-production and lost sales This asymmetry motivated the development of SMAPE.

Business Impact

In supply chain forecasting, MAPE's asymmetry can cause systematic under-forecasting, leading to stockouts. If a stockout costs more than overstocking, optimizing on MAPE can hurt business outcomes despite 'good' MAPE scores.

Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error (SMAPE)

SMAPE addresses MAPE's asymmetry by using the average of actual and predicted values in the denominator: $$\text{SMAPE} = \frac{100%}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \frac{|y_i - \hat{y}_i|}{(|y_i| + |\hat{y}_i|)/2}$$ Simplified: $$\text{SMAPE} = \frac{200%}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \frac{|y_i - \hat{y}_i|}{|y_i| + |\hat{y}_i|}$$ Key difference: The denominator is $(|y| + |\hat{y}|)/2$ instead of just $|y|$.

smape_calculation.py
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import numpy as np
 
def smape(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray) -> float:
    """
    Compute Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error.
    
    SMAPE = (200/n) * Σ |y - ŷ| / (|y| + |ŷ|)
    
    Ranges from 0% (perfect) to 200% (worst case)
    Some versions cap at 100% by dividing by 2.
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    
    numerator = np.abs(y_true - y_pred)
    denominator = np.abs(y_true) + np.abs(y_pred)
    
    # Handle case where both are zero
    with np.errstate(divide='ignore', invalid='ignore'):
        ratio = np.where(denominator == 0, 0, numerator / denominator)
    
    return np.mean(ratio) * 200
 
def smape_capped(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray) -> float:
    """
    SMAPE capped at 100% (alternative formulation).
    """
    return smape(y_true, y_pred) / 2
 
# Compare MAPE and SMAPE asymmetry
def compare_mape_smape_symmetry():
    """
    Show that SMAPE is symmetric while MAPE is not.
    """
    print("=== MAPE vs SMAPE Symmetry ===
")
    
    # Over-prediction: actual=100, predicted=200
    y1_true, y1_pred = np.array([100]), np.array([200])
    
    # Under-prediction: actual=200, predicted=100
    y2_true, y2_pred = np.array([200]), np.array([100])
    
    # Calculate all metrics
    mape1 = abs(100 - 200) / 100 * 100
    mape2 = abs(200 - 100) / 200 * 100
    smape1 = smape(y1_true, y1_pred)
    smape2 = smape(y2_true, y2_pred)
    
    print("Scenario: Factor of 2 error in opposite directions
")
    
    print("Case 1: Actual=100, Predicted=200 (over-prediction)")
    print(f"  MAPE:  {mape1:.1f}%")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape1:.1f}%")
    
    print("
Case 2: Actual=200, Predicted=100 (under-prediction)")
    print(f"  MAPE:  {mape2:.1f}%")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape2:.1f}%")
    
    print("
*** Key Insight ***")
    print(f"MAPE difference: {mape1 - mape2:.1f}% (asymmetric!)")
    print(f"SMAPE difference: {smape1 - smape2:.1f}% (symmetric)")
 
compare_mape_smape_symmetry()
 
# SMAPE calculation example
print("
" + "="*50)
y_true = np.array([100, 200, 150, 300, 250])
y_pred = np.array([110, 190, 160, 280, 260])
 
print(f"
Actual:    {y_true}")
print(f"Predicted: {y_pred}")
print(f"
SMAPE: {smape(y_true, y_pred):.2f}%")
print(f"SMAPE (0-100 scale): {smape_capped(y_true, y_pred):.2f}%")

MAPE vs SMAPE Comparison
Property	MAPE	SMAPE
Range	0% to ∞	0% to 200% (or 0-100%)
Symmetric	No (favors under-prediction)	Yes
Zero handling	Undefined if y=0	Defined unless both 0
Interpretation	% of actual value	% of average of actual+predicted
Common use	Traditional forecasting	M-competitions, academic

SMAPE Variants

There are multiple formulations of SMAPE in the literature. Some range 0-100%, others 0-200%. The M3 and M4 forecasting competitions used the 0-200% version. Always clarify which formulation is being used when comparing results.

SMAPE's Own Problems

SMAPE solves MAPE's asymmetry but introduces its own issues. Problem 1: Asymmetry Returns Near Zero While SMAPE is symmetric for large values, it becomes asymmetric near zero. If actual is near zero but prediction is not (or vice versa), the metric behaves unexpectedly.

smape_issues.py
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import numpy as np
 
def smape(y_true, y_pred):
    """SMAPE calculation."""
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    numerator = np.abs(y_true - y_pred)
    denominator = np.abs(y_true) + np.abs(y_pred)
    with np.errstate(divide='ignore', invalid='ignore'):
        ratio = np.where(denominator == 0, 0, numerator / denominator)
    return np.mean(ratio) * 200
 
def smape_near_zero_issues():
    """
    Show SMAPE issues near zero values.
    """
    print("=== SMAPE Issues Near Zero ===
")
    
    # Issue 1: Near-zero actual
    print("Issue 1: Near-zero actual value")
    y_true_1 = np.array([0.001])
    y_pred_1 = np.array([10])
    smape_1 = smape(y_true_1, y_pred_1)
    print(f"  Actual: {y_true_1[0]}, Predicted: {y_pred_1[0]}")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape_1:.1f}%")
    print(f"  Error is huge (10) but SMAPE is 'only' {smape_1:.0f}%")
    
    # Issue 2: Both small
    print("
Issue 2: Small values, same relative error")
    y_true_2 = np.array([0.01])
    y_pred_2 = np.array([0.02])  # Double the actual
    smape_2 = smape(y_true_2, y_pred_2)
    print(f"  Actual: {y_true_2[0]}, Predicted: {y_pred_2[0]}")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape_2:.1f}%")
    
    # Compare with larger values
    y_true_3 = np.array([100])
    y_pred_3 = np.array([200])  # Also double
    smape_3 = smape(y_true_3, y_pred_3)
    print(f"
  Actual: {y_true_3[0]}, Predicted: {y_pred_3[0]}")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape_3:.1f}%")
    print(f"  → Same relative error, same SMAPE (good!)")
    
    print("
" + "="*50)
    print("Issue 3: SMAPE can be artificially low")
    print("="*50)
    
    # Large prediction when actual is 0
    y_true_4 = np.array([0])
    y_pred_4 = np.array([100])
    smape_4 = smape(y_true_4, y_pred_4)
    print(f"
Actual=0, Predicted=100")
    print(f"SMAPE = 2 * |0-100| / (0+100) = 200/{100} = {smape_4:.0f}%")
    print("→ Maximum possible SMAPE, correct behavior")
    
    # Both zero
    y_true_5 = np.array([0])
    y_pred_5 = np.array([0])
    smape_5 = smape(y_true_5, y_pred_5)
    print(f"
Actual=0, Predicted=0")
    print(f"SMAPE = 0/0 → defined as {smape_5:.0f}% (perfect)")
 
smape_near_zero_issues()

Problem 2: SMAPE Can Still Favor Under-Prediction Contrary to its name, SMAPE isn't perfectly symmetric. Consider: $y=100, \hat{y}=110$: SMAPE = $\frac{10}{105} \times 100% \approx 9.5%$ $y=110, \hat{y}=100$: SMAPE = $\frac{10}{105} \times 100% \approx 9.5%$ ✓ But for the same absolute prediction shift: $y=100, \hat{y}=110$: denominator = 210 $y=100, \hat{y}=90$: denominator = 190 So $\frac{10}{195}$ vs $\frac{10}{190}$ — slightly different! Problem 3: Unbounded Can Be Confusing SMAPE ranges 0-200% in the standard formulation. Explaining why "30% SMAPE" is good when the scale goes to 200% can confuse stakeholders used to MAPE.

Alternative: MASE

Mean Absolute Scaled Error (MASE) is often recommended over MAPE/SMAPE. It scales errors by the in-sample MAE of a naive forecast, avoiding zero and infinity issues entirely. It's especially popular in academic forecasting research.

Weighted MAPE (WMAPE)

Weighted MAPE (WMAPE) offers another alternative that handles zeros gracefully: $$\text{WMAPE} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n} |y_i - \hat{y}i|}{\sum{i=1}^{n} |y_i|} \times 100%$$ Instead of averaging individual percentage errors, WMAPE computes: Total absolute error (numerator) Total actual values (denominator) This is equivalent to a weighted average of percentage errors, where weights are proportional to actual values.

wmape.py
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import numpy as np
 
def wmape(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray) -> float:
    """
    Compute Weighted Mean Absolute Percentage Error.
    
    WMAPE = sum(|y - ŷ|) / sum(|y|) * 100%
    
    Handles zeros in y_true as long as sum(y_true) != 0
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    
    total_error = np.sum(np.abs(y_true - y_pred))
    total_actual = np.sum(np.abs(y_true))
    
    if total_actual == 0:
        raise ValueError("WMAPE undefined when all actual values are zero")
    
    return (total_error / total_actual) * 100
 
def compare_mape_wmape():
    """
    Compare MAPE and WMAPE, especially with zeros.
    """
    print("=== MAPE vs WMAPE ===
")
    
    # Dataset with a zero
    y_true = np.array([10, 0, 100, 50, 1000])
    y_pred = np.array([12, 5, 90, 55, 980])
    
    print(f"Actual:    {y_true}")
    print(f"Predicted: {y_pred}")
    print(f"Errors:    {np.abs(y_true - y_pred)}")
    
    # MAPE (excluding zeros)
    mask = y_true != 0
    mape_val = np.mean(np.abs((y_true[mask] - y_pred[mask]) / y_true[mask])) * 100
    
    # WMAPE
    wmape_val = wmape(y_true, y_pred)
    
    print(f"
MAPE (excluding zero): {mape_val:.2f}%")
    print(f"WMAPE: {wmape_val:.2f}%")
    
    print("
--- Key Difference ---")
    print("MAPE: Each sample has equal weight")
    print("WMAPE: High-value samples have more weight")
    
    # Show weights
    print("
Implicit WMAPE weights (proportional to |y|):")
    weights = np.abs(y_true) / np.sum(np.abs(y_true))
    for i, (y, w) in enumerate(zip(y_true, weights)):
        print(f"  y={y}: weight = {w:.3f} ({w*100:.1f}%)")
 
compare_mape_wmape()
 
def wmape_business_context():
    """
    Show why WMAPE may be preferred in business contexts.
    """
    print("
=== Business Context: Why WMAPE Makes Sense ===
")
    
    # Sales forecasting across products
    products = ['A', 'B', 'C', 'D']
    actuals = np.array([1000, 50, 500, 10])  # Sales in $
    predictions = np.array([900, 55, 480, 12])
    errors = np.abs(actuals - predictions)
    
    print("Product | Actual | Predicted | Error | % Error")
    print("-" * 55)
    for i, p in enumerate(products):
        pct = (errors[i] / actuals[i] * 100) if actuals[i] > 0 else 0
        print(f"   {p}    |  ${actuals[i]: 4} | ${ predictions[i]: 4 } | ${ errors[i]: 3 } | { pct: .1f } % ")
    
    mape_val = np.mean(errors / actuals) * 100
    wmape_val = wmape(actuals, predictions)
    
    print(f"
MAPE: {mape_val:.1f}%")
    print(f"WMAPE: {wmape_val:.1f}%")
    
    print("
*** Interpretation ***")
    print("MAPE gives equal weight to all products.")
    print("  → Product D's 20% error matters as much as A's 10%")
    print("
WMAPE weights by revenue.")
    print("  → Product A (92% of revenue) dominates the metric")
    print("
Which is 'right' depends on your business question!")
 
wmape_business_context()

WMAPE Advantages

•Handles zeros — Individual zeros don't cause division by zero
•Business alignment — High-value items naturally get more weight
•Revenue-focused — Better reflects financial impact of errors
•Simple interpretation — 'Total errors as % of total actuals'

Decision Framework: Which Percentage Metric?

Choosing between MAPE, SMAPE, WMAPE, and other metrics depends on your specific context.

Percentage Metric Selection Guide
Scenario	Recommended Metric	Reason
No zeros in data	MAPE or SMAPE	Both work; SMAPE if symmetry matters
Zeros present	WMAPE or SMAPE	Handle zeros without issues
High-value items matter more	WMAPE	Weighted by value naturally
Equal importance across items	MAPE (exclude zeros)	Each observation equally weighted
Forecasting competition	SMAPE or MASE	Standard in M-competitions
Academic publishing	MASE	Robust, well-defined properties
Business reporting	MAPE or WMAPE	Executives understand percentages

comprehensive_pct_metrics.py
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import numpy as np
from typing import Dict
 
def comprehensive_percentage_metrics(
                                            y_true: np.ndarray,
                                            y_pred: np.ndarray
                                        ) -> Dict[str, float]:
                            """
    Compute all common percentage- based metrics.
    Returns dict with metric names and values.
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype = float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype = float)
    
    results = {}
    
    # MAPE(excluding zeros)
    mask = y_true != 0
    if np.any(mask):
                    results['MAPE'] = np.mean(np.abs((y_true[mask] - y_pred[mask]) / y_true[mask])) * 100
    else:
                        results['MAPE'] = None
    
    # SMAPE
    numerator = np.abs(y_true - y_pred)
    denominator = np.abs(y_true) + np.abs(y_pred)
    with np.errstate(divide = 'ignore', invalid = 'ignore'):
                    smape_vals = np.where(denominator == 0, 0, 2 * numerator / denominator)
    results['SMAPE'] = np.mean(smape_vals) * 100
    
    # WMAPE
    total_actual = np.sum(np.abs(y_true))
    if total_actual > 0:
                    results['WMAPE'] = np.sum(np.abs(y_true - y_pred)) / total_actual * 100
    else:
                        results['WMAPE'] = None
    
    # MdAPE(Median APE - robust to outliers)
    if np.any(mask):
                    apes = np.abs((y_true[mask] - y_pred[mask]) / y_true[mask]) * 100
        results['MdAPE'] = np.median(apes)
    else:
                        results['MdAPE'] = None
    
    # Max APE(worst case)
    if np.any(mask):
        results['MaxAPE'] = np.max(np.abs((y_true[mask] - y_pred[mask]) / y_true[mask])) * 100
    else:
    results['MaxAPE'] = None
 
    return results
 
def generate_metric_report(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray, name: str = ""):
    """Generate formatted percentage metrics report."""
    metrics = comprehensive_percentage_metrics(y_true, y_pred)
 
    print(f"╔══════ Percentage Metrics {name} ══════╗")
    for metric, value in metrics.items():
        if value is not None:
    print(f"║  {metric:10s}: {value:>10.2f}%")
        else:
    print(f"║  {metric:10s}: {'N/A':>10s}")
    print(f"╚{'═' * 40}╝")
    
    # Warnings
    if metrics.get('MaxAPE', 0) and metrics['MaxAPE'] > 100:
    print(f"⚠️  Warning: Max APE is {metrics['MaxAPE']:.0f}% - check for outliers")
 
    return metrics
 
# Example with comprehensive analysis
    np.random.seed(42)
    y_true = np.array([100, 200, 50, 0, 150, 300, 5, 180])
    y_pred = np.array([95, 210, 45, 8, 140, 280, 7, 190])
 
    generate_metric_report(y_true, y_pred, "Forecast")

Machine LearningModel Evaluation Metrics

Regression Metrics

LevelIntermediate

Duration90 mins

TopicModel Evaluation Metrics

4 / 5

MAPE and SMAPE

Errors as Percentages

Imagine explaining model performance to a business stakeholder: "Our RMSE is 1,250" \to "What does that mean?" "We're off by about 8% on average" \to "That sounds reasonable!" Percentage-based metrics express errors relative to the actual values, providing intuitive, scale-independent measures that stakeholders immediately understand. MAPE (Mean Absolute Percentage Error) and SMAPE (Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error) are the most widely used percentage error metrics, especially in forecasting and business contexts. But their apparent simplicity hides important subtleties.

What You Will Learn

By the end of this page, you will understand MAPE's mathematical definition and interpretation, why MAPE is undefined or infinite for zero values, asymmetry in MAPE and why it matters, SMAPE as a symmetric alternative, limitations of both metrics, and when to use percentage-based metrics vs. absolute metrics.

Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE)

MAPE measures the average absolute error as a percentage of the actual values: $$\text{MAPE} = \frac{100%}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \left| \frac{y_i - \hat{y}_i}{y_i} \right|$$ Or equivalently: $$\text{MAPE} = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \left| \frac{y_i - \hat{y}_i}{y_i} \right| \times 100%$$ Components: $(y_i - \hat{y}_i)$: The error (residual) $y_i$: The actual value (denominator) $|...|$: Absolute value to prevent cancellation $\frac{1}{n}$: Averaging over all samples $\times 100%$: Convert to percentage

mape_calculation.py
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import numpy as np
 
def mape(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray) -> float:
    """
    Compute Mean Absolute Percentage Error.
    
    Parameters:
    -----------
    y_true : np.ndarray
        Array of true values (must not contain zeros)
    y_pred : np.ndarray
        Array of predicted values
        
    Returns:
    --------
    float
        MAPE as a percentage (0-100+)
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    
    # Check for zeros in y_true
    if np.any(y_true == 0):
        raise ValueError("MAPE is undefined when y_true contains zeros")
    
    # Calculate percentage errors
    percentage_errors = np.abs((y_true - y_pred) / y_true)
    
    # Mean and convert to percentage
    return np.mean(percentage_errors) * 100
 
# Example: Sales forecasting
y_true = np.array([100, 200, 150, 300, 250])
y_pred = np.array([110, 190, 160, 280, 260])
 
mape_value = mape(y_true, y_pred)
 
print("=== MAPE Calculation ===")
print(f"Actual:    {y_true}")
print(f"Predicted: {y_pred}")
print(f"Errors:    {y_true - y_pred}")
print(f"
Percentage errors:")
for i in range(len(y_true)):
    pct = abs((y_true[i] - y_pred[i]) / y_true[i]) * 100
    print(f"  |({y_true[i]} - {y_pred[i]}) / {y_true[i]}| = {pct:.1f}%")
 
print(f"
MAPE: {mape_value:.2f}%")
print(f"
→ On average, predictions are off by {mape_value:.1f}% of actual values")

MAPE Interpretation Guidelines
MAPE Range	Interpretation	Typical Context
< 10%	Highly accurate	Mature, stable processes
10-20%	Good	Standard forecasting
20-50%	Reasonable	Volatile or early forecasts
50%	Poor	High uncertainty, may need different approach

Industry Standard

MAPE is extremely popular in demand forecasting, supply chain management, and financial planning. Its percentage format makes it easy to communicate across functions: 'Our sales forecast is accurate to within 15%' is immediately meaningful to executives.

The Zero Problem

MAPE has a fundamental mathematical problem: it's undefined when any actual value is zero. $$\frac{y_i - \hat{y}_i}{y_i} \text{ when } y_i = 0 \Rightarrow \frac{?}{0} = \text{undefined}$$ This isn't a theoretical edge case—it's a real problem in many domains: Demand forecasting: Products with zero sales on some days Energy consumption: Periods of zero usage Count data: Events that don't occur in some periods Financial returns: Zero returns are common

mape_zero_handling.py
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import numpy as np
from typing import Optional
 
def mape_with_zero_handling(
    y_true: np.ndarray, 
    y_pred: np.ndarray,
    zero_strategy: str = 'exclude'
) -> Optional[float]:
    """
    MAPE with different strategies for handling zeros.
    
    Parameters:
    -----------
    zero_strategy : str
        'exclude' - Skip samples where y_true = 0
        'replace' - Replace zeros with small value
        'weighted' - Use weighted MAPE (divide by sum of |y|)
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    
    if zero_strategy == 'exclude':
        # Simply exclude zero values
        mask = y_true != 0
        if not np.any(mask):
            return None
        y_true = y_true[mask]
        y_pred = y_pred[mask]
        return np.mean(np.abs((y_true - y_pred) / y_true)) * 100
    
    elif zero_strategy == 'replace':
        # Replace zeros with small value (problematic!)
        epsilon = 1e-10
        y_true_safe = np.where(y_true == 0, epsilon, y_true)
        return np.mean(np.abs((y_true - y_pred) / y_true_safe)) * 100
    
    elif zero_strategy == 'weighted':
        # Weighted MAPE: sum(|error|) / sum(|actual|)
        total_error = np.sum(np.abs(y_true - y_pred))
        total_actual = np.sum(np.abs(y_true))
        if total_actual == 0:
            return None
        return (total_error / total_actual) * 100
    
    else:
        raise ValueError(f"Unknown strategy: {zero_strategy}")
 
# Example with zeros
y_true = np.array([100, 0, 50, 200, 0, 150])
y_pred = np.array([110, 10, 55, 180, 5, 160])
 
print("=== Zero Handling Strategies ===")
print(f"Actual:    {y_true}")
print(f"Predicted: {y_pred}")
print()
 
for strategy in ['exclude', 'replace', 'weighted']:
    result = mape_with_zero_handling(y_true, y_pred, strategy)
    if result is not None:
        print(f"  {strategy:12s}: MAPE = {result:.2f}%")
    else:
        print(f"  {strategy:12s}: Cannot compute")
 
print("
*** Warning ***")
print("The 'replace' strategy can give misleading results!")
print("A zero actual with prediction of 10 gives:")
print(f"  |(0 - 10) / 1e-10| = {abs(10/1e-10):.0e} (astronomical!)")

Zero-Handling Strategies and Tradeoffs

•Exclude zeros: Simple but loses data; may bias results if zeros are informative
•Replace with small ε: Introduces huge percentage errors; generally not recommended
•Weighted MAPE (WMAPE): Total error / Total actual; handles zeros but changes interpretation
•Use different metric: MAE, MSE, or SMAPE may be more appropriate for data with zeros

Know Your Data

Before using MAPE, check for zeros in your target variable. If zeros are common or meaningful, MAPE may not be the right metric. Consider SMAPE, MAE, or domain-specific alternatives.

MAPE Asymmetry: A Hidden Bias

MAPE has a subtle but important bias: it penalizes over-predictions more heavily than under-predictions (relative to the prediction magnitude). Consider: Actual = 100, Predicted = 150 (over-prediction by 50) MAPE contribution: $|100-150|/100 = 50%$ Actual = 100, Predicted = 50 (under-prediction by 50) MAPE contribution: $|100-50|/100 = 50%$ Same absolute error, same MAPE. But what if we flip the perspective?

mape_asymmetry.py
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import numpy as np
 
def demonstrate_mape_asymmetry():
    """
    Show how MAPE is asymmetric in a way that favors under-prediction.
    """
    print("=== MAPE Asymmetry Demonstration ===
")
    
    # Case 1: Over-predict
    y_true_1 = np.array([100])
    y_pred_over = np.array([200])  # Predict double
    mape_over = abs((100 - 200) / 100) * 100
    
    # Case 2: Under-predict
    y_true_2 = np.array([200])
    y_pred_under = np.array([100])  # Predict half
    mape_under = abs((200 - 100) / 200) * 100
    
    print("Scenario: Predictions are off by a factor of 2")
    print("
1. Over-prediction (predict 200 when actual is 100):")
    print(f"   Error = |100 - 200| = 100")
    print(f"   MAPE = 100/100 = {mape_over:.0f}%")
    
    print("
2. Under-prediction (predict 100 when actual is 200):")
    print(f"   Error = |200 - 100| = 100")  
    print(f"   MAPE = 100/200 = {mape_under:.0f}%")
    
    print(f"
*** Same factor of 2 error, but: ***")
    print(f"   Over-prediction MAPE: {mape_over:.0f}%")
    print(f"   Under-prediction MAPE: {mape_under:.0f}%")
    print("
→ Under-predictions look 'better' in MAPE!")
    
    # Impact on model optimization
    print("
=== Impact on Optimization ===")
    print("If you minimize MAPE during training, the model will")
    print("learn to systematically UNDER-predict to achieve lower MAPE.")
    
    # Demonstrate with multiple predictions
    actual = 100
    print(f"
Actual value: {actual}")
    print(f"{'Prediction':>12} | {'Error':>8} | {'% Error':>10}")
    print("-" * 40)
    for pred in [50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 200]:
        error = abs(actual - pred)
        pct_error = error / actual * 100
        print(f"{pred:>12} | {error:>8} | {pct_error:>9.1f}%")
 
demonstrate_mape_asymmetry()

Why Does This Happen? MAPE divides by the actual value, not the predicted value or their average. Since: $\frac{|y - \hat{y}|}{y}$ when $\hat{y} > y$ → error/smaller number = bigger percentage $\frac{|y - \hat{y}|}{y}$ when $\hat{y} < y$ → error/larger number = smaller percentage Practical Implications Forecasting bias: Models optimized on MAPE tend to under-forecast Inventory impact: Under-forecasting leads to stockouts Revenue impact: Under-forecasting can lead to under-production and lost sales This asymmetry motivated the development of SMAPE.

Business Impact

In supply chain forecasting, MAPE's asymmetry can cause systematic under-forecasting, leading to stockouts. If a stockout costs more than overstocking, optimizing on MAPE can hurt business outcomes despite 'good' MAPE scores.

Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error (SMAPE)

SMAPE addresses MAPE's asymmetry by using the average of actual and predicted values in the denominator: $$\text{SMAPE} = \frac{100%}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \frac{|y_i - \hat{y}_i|}{(|y_i| + |\hat{y}_i|)/2}$$ Simplified: $$\text{SMAPE} = \frac{200%}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \frac{|y_i - \hat{y}_i|}{|y_i| + |\hat{y}_i|}$$ Key difference: The denominator is $(|y| + |\hat{y}|)/2$ instead of just $|y|$.

smape_calculation.py
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import numpy as np
 
def smape(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray) -> float:
    """
    Compute Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error.
    
    SMAPE = (200/n) * Σ |y - ŷ| / (|y| + |ŷ|)
    
    Ranges from 0% (perfect) to 200% (worst case)
    Some versions cap at 100% by dividing by 2.
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    
    numerator = np.abs(y_true - y_pred)
    denominator = np.abs(y_true) + np.abs(y_pred)
    
    # Handle case where both are zero
    with np.errstate(divide='ignore', invalid='ignore'):
        ratio = np.where(denominator == 0, 0, numerator / denominator)
    
    return np.mean(ratio) * 200
 
def smape_capped(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray) -> float:
    """
    SMAPE capped at 100% (alternative formulation).
    """
    return smape(y_true, y_pred) / 2
 
# Compare MAPE and SMAPE asymmetry
def compare_mape_smape_symmetry():
    """
    Show that SMAPE is symmetric while MAPE is not.
    """
    print("=== MAPE vs SMAPE Symmetry ===
")
    
    # Over-prediction: actual=100, predicted=200
    y1_true, y1_pred = np.array([100]), np.array([200])
    
    # Under-prediction: actual=200, predicted=100
    y2_true, y2_pred = np.array([200]), np.array([100])
    
    # Calculate all metrics
    mape1 = abs(100 - 200) / 100 * 100
    mape2 = abs(200 - 100) / 200 * 100
    smape1 = smape(y1_true, y1_pred)
    smape2 = smape(y2_true, y2_pred)
    
    print("Scenario: Factor of 2 error in opposite directions
")
    
    print("Case 1: Actual=100, Predicted=200 (over-prediction)")
    print(f"  MAPE:  {mape1:.1f}%")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape1:.1f}%")
    
    print("
Case 2: Actual=200, Predicted=100 (under-prediction)")
    print(f"  MAPE:  {mape2:.1f}%")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape2:.1f}%")
    
    print("
*** Key Insight ***")
    print(f"MAPE difference: {mape1 - mape2:.1f}% (asymmetric!)")
    print(f"SMAPE difference: {smape1 - smape2:.1f}% (symmetric)")
 
compare_mape_smape_symmetry()
 
# SMAPE calculation example
print("
" + "="*50)
y_true = np.array([100, 200, 150, 300, 250])
y_pred = np.array([110, 190, 160, 280, 260])
 
print(f"
Actual:    {y_true}")
print(f"Predicted: {y_pred}")
print(f"
SMAPE: {smape(y_true, y_pred):.2f}%")
print(f"SMAPE (0-100 scale): {smape_capped(y_true, y_pred):.2f}%")

MAPE vs SMAPE Comparison
Property	MAPE	SMAPE
Range	0% to ∞	0% to 200% (or 0-100%)
Symmetric	No (favors under-prediction)	Yes
Zero handling	Undefined if y=0	Defined unless both 0
Interpretation	% of actual value	% of average of actual+predicted
Common use	Traditional forecasting	M-competitions, academic

SMAPE Variants

There are multiple formulations of SMAPE in the literature. Some range 0-100%, others 0-200%. The M3 and M4 forecasting competitions used the 0-200% version. Always clarify which formulation is being used when comparing results.

SMAPE's Own Problems

SMAPE solves MAPE's asymmetry but introduces its own issues. Problem 1: Asymmetry Returns Near Zero While SMAPE is symmetric for large values, it becomes asymmetric near zero. If actual is near zero but prediction is not (or vice versa), the metric behaves unexpectedly.

smape_issues.py
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import numpy as np
 
def smape(y_true, y_pred):
    """SMAPE calculation."""
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    numerator = np.abs(y_true - y_pred)
    denominator = np.abs(y_true) + np.abs(y_pred)
    with np.errstate(divide='ignore', invalid='ignore'):
        ratio = np.where(denominator == 0, 0, numerator / denominator)
    return np.mean(ratio) * 200
 
def smape_near_zero_issues():
    """
    Show SMAPE issues near zero values.
    """
    print("=== SMAPE Issues Near Zero ===
")
    
    # Issue 1: Near-zero actual
    print("Issue 1: Near-zero actual value")
    y_true_1 = np.array([0.001])
    y_pred_1 = np.array([10])
    smape_1 = smape(y_true_1, y_pred_1)
    print(f"  Actual: {y_true_1[0]}, Predicted: {y_pred_1[0]}")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape_1:.1f}%")
    print(f"  Error is huge (10) but SMAPE is 'only' {smape_1:.0f}%")
    
    # Issue 2: Both small
    print("
Issue 2: Small values, same relative error")
    y_true_2 = np.array([0.01])
    y_pred_2 = np.array([0.02])  # Double the actual
    smape_2 = smape(y_true_2, y_pred_2)
    print(f"  Actual: {y_true_2[0]}, Predicted: {y_pred_2[0]}")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape_2:.1f}%")
    
    # Compare with larger values
    y_true_3 = np.array([100])
    y_pred_3 = np.array([200])  # Also double
    smape_3 = smape(y_true_3, y_pred_3)
    print(f"
  Actual: {y_true_3[0]}, Predicted: {y_pred_3[0]}")
    print(f"  SMAPE: {smape_3:.1f}%")
    print(f"  → Same relative error, same SMAPE (good!)")
    
    print("
" + "="*50)
    print("Issue 3: SMAPE can be artificially low")
    print("="*50)
    
    # Large prediction when actual is 0
    y_true_4 = np.array([0])
    y_pred_4 = np.array([100])
    smape_4 = smape(y_true_4, y_pred_4)
    print(f"
Actual=0, Predicted=100")
    print(f"SMAPE = 2 * |0-100| / (0+100) = 200/{100} = {smape_4:.0f}%")
    print("→ Maximum possible SMAPE, correct behavior")
    
    # Both zero
    y_true_5 = np.array([0])
    y_pred_5 = np.array([0])
    smape_5 = smape(y_true_5, y_pred_5)
    print(f"
Actual=0, Predicted=0")
    print(f"SMAPE = 0/0 → defined as {smape_5:.0f}% (perfect)")
 
smape_near_zero_issues()

Problem 2: SMAPE Can Still Favor Under-Prediction Contrary to its name, SMAPE isn't perfectly symmetric. Consider: $y=100, \hat{y}=110$: SMAPE = $\frac{10}{105} \times 100% \approx 9.5%$ $y=110, \hat{y}=100$: SMAPE = $\frac{10}{105} \times 100% \approx 9.5%$ ✓ But for the same absolute prediction shift: $y=100, \hat{y}=110$: denominator = 210 $y=100, \hat{y}=90$: denominator = 190 So $\frac{10}{195}$ vs $\frac{10}{190}$ — slightly different! Problem 3: Unbounded Can Be Confusing SMAPE ranges 0-200% in the standard formulation. Explaining why "30% SMAPE" is good when the scale goes to 200% can confuse stakeholders used to MAPE.

Alternative: MASE

Mean Absolute Scaled Error (MASE) is often recommended over MAPE/SMAPE. It scales errors by the in-sample MAE of a naive forecast, avoiding zero and infinity issues entirely. It's especially popular in academic forecasting research.

Weighted MAPE (WMAPE)

Weighted MAPE (WMAPE) offers another alternative that handles zeros gracefully: $$\text{WMAPE} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n} |y_i - \hat{y}i|}{\sum{i=1}^{n} |y_i|} \times 100%$$ Instead of averaging individual percentage errors, WMAPE computes: Total absolute error (numerator) Total actual values (denominator) This is equivalent to a weighted average of percentage errors, where weights are proportional to actual values.

wmape.py
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import numpy as np
 
def wmape(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray) -> float:
    """
    Compute Weighted Mean Absolute Percentage Error.
    
    WMAPE = sum(|y - ŷ|) / sum(|y|) * 100%
    
    Handles zeros in y_true as long as sum(y_true) != 0
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype=float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype=float)
    
    total_error = np.sum(np.abs(y_true - y_pred))
    total_actual = np.sum(np.abs(y_true))
    
    if total_actual == 0:
        raise ValueError("WMAPE undefined when all actual values are zero")
    
    return (total_error / total_actual) * 100
 
def compare_mape_wmape():
    """
    Compare MAPE and WMAPE, especially with zeros.
    """
    print("=== MAPE vs WMAPE ===
")
    
    # Dataset with a zero
    y_true = np.array([10, 0, 100, 50, 1000])
    y_pred = np.array([12, 5, 90, 55, 980])
    
    print(f"Actual:    {y_true}")
    print(f"Predicted: {y_pred}")
    print(f"Errors:    {np.abs(y_true - y_pred)}")
    
    # MAPE (excluding zeros)
    mask = y_true != 0
    mape_val = np.mean(np.abs((y_true[mask] - y_pred[mask]) / y_true[mask])) * 100
    
    # WMAPE
    wmape_val = wmape(y_true, y_pred)
    
    print(f"
MAPE (excluding zero): {mape_val:.2f}%")
    print(f"WMAPE: {wmape_val:.2f}%")
    
    print("
--- Key Difference ---")
    print("MAPE: Each sample has equal weight")
    print("WMAPE: High-value samples have more weight")
    
    # Show weights
    print("
Implicit WMAPE weights (proportional to |y|):")
    weights = np.abs(y_true) / np.sum(np.abs(y_true))
    for i, (y, w) in enumerate(zip(y_true, weights)):
        print(f"  y={y}: weight = {w:.3f} ({w*100:.1f}%)")
 
compare_mape_wmape()
 
def wmape_business_context():
    """
    Show why WMAPE may be preferred in business contexts.
    """
    print("
=== Business Context: Why WMAPE Makes Sense ===
")
    
    # Sales forecasting across products
    products = ['A', 'B', 'C', 'D']
    actuals = np.array([1000, 50, 500, 10])  # Sales in $
    predictions = np.array([900, 55, 480, 12])
    errors = np.abs(actuals - predictions)
    
    print("Product | Actual | Predicted | Error | % Error")
    print("-" * 55)
    for i, p in enumerate(products):
        pct = (errors[i] / actuals[i] * 100) if actuals[i] > 0 else 0
        print(f"   {p}    |  ${actuals[i]: 4} | ${ predictions[i]: 4 } | ${ errors[i]: 3 } | { pct: .1f } % ")
    
    mape_val = np.mean(errors / actuals) * 100
    wmape_val = wmape(actuals, predictions)
    
    print(f"
MAPE: {mape_val:.1f}%")
    print(f"WMAPE: {wmape_val:.1f}%")
    
    print("
*** Interpretation ***")
    print("MAPE gives equal weight to all products.")
    print("  → Product D's 20% error matters as much as A's 10%")
    print("
WMAPE weights by revenue.")
    print("  → Product A (92% of revenue) dominates the metric")
    print("
Which is 'right' depends on your business question!")
 
wmape_business_context()

WMAPE Advantages

•Handles zeros — Individual zeros don't cause division by zero
•Business alignment — High-value items naturally get more weight
•Revenue-focused — Better reflects financial impact of errors
•Simple interpretation — 'Total errors as % of total actuals'

Decision Framework: Which Percentage Metric?

Choosing between MAPE, SMAPE, WMAPE, and other metrics depends on your specific context.

Percentage Metric Selection Guide
Scenario	Recommended Metric	Reason
No zeros in data	MAPE or SMAPE	Both work; SMAPE if symmetry matters
Zeros present	WMAPE or SMAPE	Handle zeros without issues
High-value items matter more	WMAPE	Weighted by value naturally
Equal importance across items	MAPE (exclude zeros)	Each observation equally weighted
Forecasting competition	SMAPE or MASE	Standard in M-competitions
Academic publishing	MASE	Robust, well-defined properties
Business reporting	MAPE or WMAPE	Executives understand percentages

comprehensive_pct_metrics.py
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import numpy as np
from typing import Dict
 
def comprehensive_percentage_metrics(
                                            y_true: np.ndarray,
                                            y_pred: np.ndarray
                                        ) -> Dict[str, float]:
                            """
    Compute all common percentage- based metrics.
    Returns dict with metric names and values.
    """
    y_true = np.asarray(y_true, dtype = float)
    y_pred = np.asarray(y_pred, dtype = float)
    
    results = {}
    
    # MAPE(excluding zeros)
    mask = y_true != 0
    if np.any(mask):
                    results['MAPE'] = np.mean(np.abs((y_true[mask] - y_pred[mask]) / y_true[mask])) * 100
    else:
                        results['MAPE'] = None
    
    # SMAPE
    numerator = np.abs(y_true - y_pred)
    denominator = np.abs(y_true) + np.abs(y_pred)
    with np.errstate(divide = 'ignore', invalid = 'ignore'):
                    smape_vals = np.where(denominator == 0, 0, 2 * numerator / denominator)
    results['SMAPE'] = np.mean(smape_vals) * 100
    
    # WMAPE
    total_actual = np.sum(np.abs(y_true))
    if total_actual > 0:
                    results['WMAPE'] = np.sum(np.abs(y_true - y_pred)) / total_actual * 100
    else:
                        results['WMAPE'] = None
    
    # MdAPE(Median APE - robust to outliers)
    if np.any(mask):
                    apes = np.abs((y_true[mask] - y_pred[mask]) / y_true[mask]) * 100
        results['MdAPE'] = np.median(apes)
    else:
                        results['MdAPE'] = None
    
    # Max APE(worst case)
    if np.any(mask):
        results['MaxAPE'] = np.max(np.abs((y_true[mask] - y_pred[mask]) / y_true[mask])) * 100
    else:
    results['MaxAPE'] = None
 
    return results
 
def generate_metric_report(y_true: np.ndarray, y_pred: np.ndarray, name: str = ""):
    """Generate formatted percentage metrics report."""
    metrics = comprehensive_percentage_metrics(y_true, y_pred)
 
    print(f"╔══════ Percentage Metrics {name} ══════╗")
    for metric, value in metrics.items():
        if value is not None:
    print(f"║  {metric:10s}: {value:>10.2f}%")
        else:
    print(f"║  {metric:10s}: {'N/A':>10s}")
    print(f"╚{'═' * 40}╝")
    
    # Warnings
    if metrics.get('MaxAPE', 0) and metrics['MaxAPE'] > 100:
    print(f"⚠️  Warning: Max APE is {metrics['MaxAPE']:.0f}% - check for outliers")
 
    return metrics
 
# Example with comprehensive analysis
    np.random.seed(42)
    y_true = np.array([100, 200, 50, 0, 150, 300, 5, 180])
    y_pred = np.array([95, 210, 45, 8, 140, 280, 7, 190])
 
    generate_metric_report(y_true, y_pred, "Forecast")

MAPE and SMAPE

Errors as Percentages

Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE)

The Zero Problem

MAPE Asymmetry: A Hidden Bias

Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error (SMAPE)

SMAPE's Own Problems

Weighted MAPE (WMAPE)

Decision Framework: Which Percentage Metric?

There’s more to understand.

MAPE and SMAPE

Errors as Percentages

Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE)

The Zero Problem

MAPE Asymmetry: A Hidden Bias

Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error (SMAPE)

SMAPE's Own Problems

Weighted MAPE (WMAPE)

Decision Framework: Which Percentage Metric?

There’s more to understand.