Every time you tune into a radio station, make a phone call, or stream data over a network, you're witnessing the fruits of a fundamental discovery: information can ride on waves. At the heart of this concept lies Amplitude Modulation (AM)—one of the oldest, most intuitive, and still widely relevant modulation techniques in telecommunications.

Amplitude Modulation represents the first successful method humans developed to transmit voice and music wirelessly. Invented in the early 20th century, AM radio broadcasts transformed global communication. Today, while more sophisticated modulation schemes dominate high-speed networks, the principles of AM remain foundational—forming the conceptual bedrock upon which all modern modulation techniques are built.

Before diving into amplitude modulation specifically, we must understand the fundamental problem that all modulation techniques solve.

The Baseband Problem:

When you speak into a microphone, you generate an electrical signal that varies with your voice—typically in the range of 300 Hz to 3,400 Hz for human speech. This original signal is called the baseband signal. If we tried to transmit this signal directly through the air:

1. Antenna size would be impractical — Efficient antenna design requires antenna length proportional to wavelength. For a 3 kHz signal, the wavelength is 100 kilometers. An efficient antenna would need to be 25 km long!

2. Multiple signals would interfere — If everyone transmitted at baseband frequencies, all conversations would overlap and become unintelligible.

3. Long-distance propagation fails — Low frequencies don't propagate well through the atmosphere for broadcasting purposes.

Three fundamental properties of a wave can be modified:

Every sinusoidal wave can be described by three parameters:

$$s(t) = A \cdot \sin(2\pi f t + \phi)$$

Where:

• A = Amplitude (strength/height of the wave)
• f = Frequency (how fast the wave oscillates)
• φ = Phase (where in its cycle the wave starts)

Each of these parameters can carry information, leading to three fundamental modulation families:

Amplitude modulation was the first to be developed and remains conceptually the simplest—which is precisely why we study it first.

The carrier wave is the foundation of all modulated signals. It's a high-frequency sinusoidal wave that serves as a transportation mechanism for the actual information.

Mathematical Representation:

$$c(t) = A_c \cdot \cos(2\pi f_c t)$$

Where:

• A_c = Carrier amplitude (constant in the unmodulated state)
• f_c = Carrier frequency (much higher than the message frequency)
• t = Time

Why Use a Pure Sinusoid?

The choice of a sinusoidal carrier isn't arbitrary—it's mathematically optimal:

1. Spectral purity — A perfect sinusoid occupies a single frequency, the narrowest possible bandwidth for a periodic signal.

2. Ease of generation — Electronic oscillators can produce stable, accurate sinusoids relatively easily.

3. Mathematical tractability — Fourier analysis shows that any signal can be decomposed into sinusoids, making sinusoidal carriers ideal for analysis.

4. Predictable behavior — Linear systems (filters, amplifiers) respond to sinusoids in well-understood ways.

The modulating signal (also called the message signal or baseband signal) contains the actual information we want to transmit. This is the voice, music, or data that we want to send from one point to another.

Mathematical Representation:

$$m(t) = A_m \cdot \cos(2\pi f_m t)$$

Where:

• A_m = Message signal amplitude
• f_m = Message signal frequency
• The constraint: f_m << f_c (message frequency is much less than carrier frequency)

Why the Frequency Constraint Matters:

For amplitude modulation to work correctly, the carrier frequency must be significantly higher than the highest frequency component in the message signal. A typical rule of thumb is:

$$f_c \geq 10 \times f_{m(max)}$$

This ensures that:

1. The envelope of the modulated signal accurately represents the message
2. The signal can be demodulated (recovered) without distortion
3. The sidebands don't overlap with the carrier

In amplitude modulation, we vary the amplitude of the carrier wave in proportion to the instantaneous value of the message signal. The higher the message signal voltage at any moment, the larger the carrier amplitude at that moment.

The AM Signal Equation:

$$s_{AM}(t) = [A_c + m(t)] \cdot \cos(2\pi f_c t)$$

Expanding with a single-tone modulating signal:

$$s_{AM}(t) = [A_c + A_m \cos(2\pi f_m t)] \cdot \cos(2\pi f_c t)$$

This can be rewritten as:

$$s_{AM}(t) = A_c [1 + \mu \cos(2\pi f_m t)] \cdot \cos(2\pi f_c t)$$

Where μ = A_m / A_c is the modulation index (or modulation depth).

Physical Interpretation:

The term in brackets, [1 + μ cos(2πf_m t)], represents the envelope of the AM signal. This envelope:

• Varies between (1 + μ) and (1 - μ)
• Oscillates at the message frequency f_m
• Contains the actual information we want to recover

The modulation index (μ) is the most critical parameter in amplitude modulation. It determines how much the carrier amplitude varies in response to the message signal.

Definition:

$$\mu = \frac{A_m}{A_c} = \frac{\text{Peak Message Amplitude}}{\text{Carrier Amplitude}}$$

Alternatively, it can be expressed in terms of the AM signal's envelope:

$$\mu = \frac{A_{max} - A_{min}}{A_{max} + A_{min}}$$

Where A_max and A_min are the maximum and minimum envelope amplitudes.

Percentage Modulation:

Modulation index is often expressed as a percentage:

$$\text{Percentage Modulation} = \mu \times 100%$$

Understanding the AM signal's frequency spectrum is crucial for bandwidth allocation and filter design. Let's derive it mathematically.

Starting from the AM equation:

$$s_{AM}(t) = A_c [1 + \mu \cos(2\pi f_m t)] \cdot \cos(2\pi f_c t)$$

Expanding:

$$s_{AM}(t) = A_c \cos(2\pi f_c t) + A_c \mu \cos(2\pi f_m t) \cdot \cos(2\pi f_c t)$$

Using the trigonometric identity: cos(A)cos(B) = ½[cos(A-B) + cos(A+B)]

$$s_{AM}(t) = A_c \cos(2\pi f_c t) + \frac{A_c \mu}{2} \cos(2\pi (f_c - f_m) t) + \frac{A_c \mu}{2} \cos(2\pi (f_c + f_m) t)$$

The Three Components:

Power Distribution in AM:

The power in an AM signal is distributed among the carrier and sidebands:

$$P_{total} = P_c + P_{USB} + P_{LSB} = P_c + 2P_{sideband}$$

For a single-tone message with modulation index μ:

$$P_{total} = P_c \left(1 + \frac{\mu^2}{2}\right)$$

This reveals a significant inefficiency:

At maximum modulation (μ = 100%), only one-third of the transmitted power carries information! The carrier—which contains no information—wastes two-thirds of the power.

This inefficiency motivated the development of suppressed-carrier and single-sideband techniques, but conventional AM persists due to its receiver simplicity.

The power and bandwidth inefficiencies of standard AM led to several improved variants:

Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC):

Eliminate the carrier entirely, transmitting only the sidebands:

$$s_{DSB-SC}(t) = A_c \cdot m(t) \cdot \cos(2\pi f_c t)$$

• Advantage: All transmitted power carries information
• Disadvantage: Requires complex coherent demodulation (must regenerate carrier at receiver)
• Bandwidth: Still 2 × f_m (same as AM)

Single-Sideband (SSB):

Transmit only one sideband (USB or LSB), suppressing both the carrier and the redundant sideband:

• Advantage: Bandwidth halved to f_m; all power carries information
• Disadvantage: Complex generation and demodulation; critical frequency accuracy needed
• Applications: Amateur radio, marine radio, long-distance voice

Vestigial Sideband (VSB):

Transmit one full sideband plus a small portion (vestige) of the other:

• Advantage: Good balance of bandwidth efficiency and implementation simplicity
• Application: Analog television broadcast (was used for video signal)

We've established the foundational concepts of amplitude modulation. Let's consolidate the key takeaways:

What's Next:

With the analog AM foundation in place, we'll now explore its digital counterpart: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK). ASK applies AM principles to digital data transmission, using discrete amplitude levels to represent binary values. This bridges the gap between classic analog modulation and modern digital communications.