Open any dictionary, and you'll find words arranged in a specific order. "Apple" comes before "Banana," which comes before "Cherry." This ordering seems obvious—we learned it in childhood. But have you ever stopped to ask: How exactly does a computer determine that "apple" should come before "banana"?

The answer lies in lexicographical ordering—a precise, character-by-character comparison algorithm that forms the foundation of string sorting, searching, and comparison throughout computer science. Understanding this ordering deeply is essential because it:

• Determines how strings are sorted in every programming language
• Controls how binary search works on sorted string collections
• Influences the behavior of virtually every string comparison operation
• Contains subtle corner cases that cause bugs when misunderstood

Let's establish a precise definition before exploring implications:

Definition:

Lexicographical order (also called lexical order, dictionary order, or alphabetical order) is a method of comparing sequences (including strings) by examining their elements one at a time, from left to right, until a difference is found or one sequence is exhausted.

The name comes from 'lexicon'—a dictionary—because this is how dictionaries order words.

The Algorithm:

To compare two strings A and B lexicographically:

1. Compare characters at position 0: If A[0] < B[0], then A < B. If A[0] > B[0], then A > B. If A[0] = B[0], continue.

2. Compare characters at position 1: Apply the same logic. Continue for each position.

3. If one string is exhausted: The shorter string is considered 'less than' the longer string if all compared characters were equal.

4. If both strings are identical: They are equal.

Critical insight: The comparison is determined by the first differing character. All subsequent characters are irrelevant once a difference is found.

Lexicographical comparison fundamentally relies on the numeric value assigned to each character by the underlying character encoding (typically Unicode, with ASCII as a subset).

Key principle: When comparing two characters, we compare their code points. The character with the lower code point is considered 'less than' the other.

ASCII Code Point Ranges (critical knowledge):

This ordering has profound implications:

1. All digits come before all letters: '9' (57) < 'A' (65)

2. All uppercase letters come before all lowercase letters: 'Z' (90) < 'a' (97)

3. Within letters, order is alphabetical: 'A' < 'B' < ... < 'Z' and 'a' < 'b' < ... < 'z'

4. Space and punctuation have their own codes: Space is 32, which comes before digits, which come before letters

Let's formalize the lexicographical comparison algorithm with pseudocode that reveals exactly what happens at each step:

function lexicographicalCompare(A, B):
    i = 0
    
    // Step 1: Compare character by character
    while i < length(A) AND i < length(B):
        if A[i] < B[i]:
            return -1        // A is less than B
        else if A[i] > B[i]:
            return +1        // A is greater than B
        else:
            i = i + 1        // Characters equal, continue
    
    // Step 2: All compared characters were equal
    // Now check lengths
    if length(A) < length(B):
        return -1            // A is a prefix of B, A is less
    else if length(A) > length(B):
        return +1            // B is a prefix of A, B is less
    else:
        return 0             // Identical strings

Time Complexity: O(min(|A|, |B|)) — We compare at most as many characters as the shorter string has.

Space Complexity: O(1) — Only a single index variable is needed.

Trace Example: Comparing "application" and "apple"

Result: "application" > "apple" because 'i' > 'e' at position 4.

Notice that we never looked at the remaining characters in either string. The comparison was decided at the first point of difference.

Trace Example: Comparing "app" and "apple"

After the loop: length(A) = 3 < length(B) = 5

Result: "app" < "apple" because "app" is a proper prefix of "apple".

The prefix rule states: if one string is a prefix of another (all characters match up to the shorter string's length), the shorter string is considered less than the longer one.

Lexicographical order isn't just a convenience—it's a total ordering with properties that make it essential for fundamental algorithms:

1. Total Ordering Properties:

A total ordering satisfies three properties that enable sorting and searching:

• Antisymmetry: If A ≤ B and B ≤ A, then A = B
• Transitivity: If A ≤ B and B ≤ C, then A ≤ C
• Connexity: For any A and B, either A ≤ B or B ≤ A (or both if equal)

Lexicographical order satisfies all three, making it a valid comparison function for any algorithm that requires ordered data.

2. Binary Search:

Binary search requires a sorted collection. When strings are sorted lexicographically, we can efficiently find any string (or determine its absence) in O(log n) time:

Given sorted list: ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "date", "elderberry"]

Search for "cherry":
- Middle: "cherry" — Found!

Search for "coconut":
- Middle: "cherry" — "coconut" > "cherry", search right
- Middle: "date" — "coconut" < "date", search left  
- No elements left — Not found, would insert between "cherry" and "date"

3. Balanced Search Trees (BST, Red-Black, AVL):

Tree-based data structures like TreeMap and TreeSet maintain elements in sorted order. For strings, this means lexicographical order:

                    "mango"
                   /       \
            "cherry"        "papaya"
            /     \              \
      "apple"   "grape"      "strawberry"

In-order traversal yields: apple, cherry, grape, mango, papaya, strawberry

4. Range Queries:

Lexicographical order enables powerful range queries:

• "Find all words starting with 'pr'" → Find range ["pr", "ps")
• "Find all words between 'cat' and 'dog'" → Find range ["cat", "dog"]

These operations are O(log n + k) where k is the number of results.

5. Sorting Algorithms:

Every sorting algorithm that works on strings (quicksort, mergesort, heapsort) uses lexicographical comparison as its comparator. Understanding the comparison is understanding the sort.

Lexicographical ordering, while simple in principle, has edge cases that frequently cause bugs:

1. Empty String Comparisons:

The empty string "" is lexicographically less than every non-empty string:

• "" < "a" (empty is prefix of any string)
• "" < " " (even a single space)
• "" = "" (equal to itself)

2. Strings with Spaces:

Space (code 32) is a valid character that compares less than all letters and digits:

• " apple" < "apple" (space < 'a')
• "a b" < "ab" (space < 'b' at position 1)
• "hello world" < "helloworld" (space < 'w')

3. Mixed Case Strings:

Uppercase letters have lower ASCII values than lowercase:

• "Zebra" < "apple" ('Z'=90 < 'a'=97)
• "ABC" < "abc" ('A'=65 < 'a'=97)
• "aBC" < "abc" ('B'=66 < 'b'=98 at position 1)

4. Numeric Strings:

This is the most common source of bugs:

• "9" > "10" ('9'=57 > '1'=49)
• "100" < "20" ('1'=49 < '2'=50)
• "1" < "10" < "100" < "2" (prefix rules and first-char comparison)

If you need numerical ordering, you must either:

• Convert to numbers before comparing
• Pad with leading zeros for fixed-width comparison
• Use a custom comparator

5. Unicode and Extended Characters:

Beyond ASCII, characters from different scripts have their own code points:

• "café" — The 'é' (code 233) > 'e' (101)
• "naïve" — The 'ï' (code 239) > 'i' (105)
• Greek, Cyrillic, Chinese characters all have code points above ASCII

For proper multilingual sorting, you need locale-aware comparison (covered later), not pure lexicographical comparison.

Understanding lexicographical order unlocks elegant solutions to many string problems:

Problem 1: Finding the Lexicographically Smallest String

Given a list of strings, find the one that comes first in dictionary order:

Input: ["banana", "apple", "cherry"]
Output: "apple"

Solution: Simply use min() with default string comparison—it uses lexicographical order.

Problem 2: Next Lexicographical Permutation

Given a string, find the next string in lexicographical order among all permutations:

Input: "abc"
Output: "acb"

Full sequence: abc → acb → bac → bca → cab → cba

This is a classic algorithm problem with applications in combinatorics and optimization.

Problem 3: Longest Common Prefix

When strings are sorted lexicographically, the longest common prefix of the entire array equals the longest common prefix of just the first and last strings:

Sorted: ["flower", "flow", "flight"]
Wait—sorted: ["flight", "flow", "flower"]

LCP of "flight" and "flower" = "fl"
This is also the LCP of all strings in the array!

Why? Because in sorted order, all strings with the same prefix are adjacent. The first and last strings have the minimum overlap.

Problem 4: String Comparison in Sorting

When you call Arrays.sort(stringArray) or list.sort() on strings, the runtime uses lexicographical comparison. Understanding this explains:

• Why ["10", "2", "1"] sorts to ["1", "10", "2"]
• Why ["Banana", "apple"] sorts to ["Banana", "apple"] (B < a)
• Why sorting is stable for equal strings

Problem 5: Binary Search for String Insertion

To insert a string into a sorted list while maintaining order:

Sorted list: ["apple", "cherry", "date"]
Insert: "banana"

Binary search: "banana" > "apple", "banana" < "cherry"
Insert at index 1: ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "date"]

Problem 6: Prefix-Based Queries

Given strings sorted lexicographically, all strings starting with a prefix form a contiguous range:

Sorted: ["app", "apple", "application", "apply", "banana", "band"]

Find all words starting with "app":
- Binary search for "app" → index 0
- Binary search for "apq" (first string > any "app..." prefix) → index 4
- Answer: indices [0, 4) = ["app", "apple", "application", "apply"]

String comparison is not a constant-time operation. Understanding its cost is crucial for algorithm analysis:

Basic Comparison Cost:

Comparing two strings of lengths m and n:

• Best case: O(1) — First characters differ
• Average case: O(min(m, n)) — Must scan until difference or end
• Worst case: O(min(m, n)) — Strings are equal or one is prefix of other

Impact on Sorting:

For n strings of average length L:

• Each comparison is O(L)
• Sorting makes O(n log n) comparisons
• Total: O(n × L × log n)

For large strings, this L factor can dominate!

Impact on Binary Search:

Searching in n strings of average length L:

• Each comparison is O(L)
• Binary search makes O(log n) comparisons
• Total: O(L × log n)

Again, string length matters.

We've developed a rigorous understanding of lexicographical ordering—the foundation of string comparison in computer science. Let's consolidate the essential concepts:

What's next:

Lexicographical comparison treats uppercase and lowercase letters as completely different characters. But often we want 'Apple' and 'apple' to compare equal. The next page explores case sensitivity—how it affects string comparison, when it matters, and strategies for case-insensitive operations.