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/**
 * CPU preemption: the canonical example of safe resource preemption.
 * 
 * The CPU can be preempted at virtually any time because:
 * 1. State is fully savable (registers, PC, flags)
 * 2. State is fully restorable (context switch reloads everything)
 * 3. No external side effects (computation is internal)
 * 4. Process tolerance is implicit (preemption is invisible to process)
 */
 
// Context saved on preemption
struct cpu_context {
    uint64_t rax, rbx, rcx, rdx;        // General registers
    uint64_t rsi, rdi, rbp, rsp;        // Index/pointer registers
    uint64_t r8, r9, r10, r11;          // Additional registers
    uint64_t r12, r13, r14, r15;
    uint64_t rip;                        // Instruction pointer
    uint64_t rflags;                     // Status flags
    uint64_t cs, ss;                     // Segment registers
    struct fpu_state *fpu;               // Floating point state
    // ... additional state as needed
};
 
/**
 * Timer interrupt triggers preemption.
 * Called by hardware interrupt handler.
 */
void timer_interrupt_handler(struct cpu_context *interrupted_context) {
    // Step 1: Save current process context
    struct task_struct *current = get_current_task();
    save_context(current, interrupted_context);
    
    // Step 2: Update scheduler state (accounting, priorities)
    scheduler_tick(current);
    
    // Step 3: Pick next process to run
    struct task_struct *next = schedule();
    
    if (next != current) {
        // Step 4: Restore next process context
        switch_to(current, next);
        // Note: switch_to saves remaining context and restores next's
    }
    
    // Step 5: Return to (possibly different) process
    // Hardware restores context from stack and continues execution
}
 
/**
 * Key insight: The preempted process never knows it was preempted.
 * From its perspective, execution is continuous.
 * 
 * This "invisible preemption" is the gold standard for safe preemption.
 * Other resources are preemptable to the extent they can approximate this.
 */

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/**
 * Memory preemption via paging/swapping.
 * 
 * Memory is preemptable because:
 * 1. Contents can be saved to disk (swap space)
 * 2. Contents can be restored on demand (page fault)
 * 3. No external effects (memory is internal state)
 * 4. Process tolerates via blocking on page fault
 */
 
#include <linux/mm.h>
#include <linux/swap.h>
 
/**
 * Page reclaim: Preempt memory pages from processes.
 * Called when memory is low.
 */
unsigned long reclaim_pages(struct zone *zone, unsigned long nr_to_reclaim) {
    struct list_head *page_list;
    unsigned long nr_reclaimed = 0;
    
    // Get list of candidate pages (LRU)
    page_list = get_lru_pages(zone, nr_to_reclaim);
    
    for_each_page(page, page_list) {
        // Skip pinned or locked pages
        if (page_is_locked(page) || page_is_pinned(page)) {
            continue;
        }
        
        // Different handling based on page type
        if (page_is_anonymous(page)) {
            // Anonymous page (heap, stack): write to swap
            if (add_to_swap(page)) {
                // Page now has a swap slot
                // Remove from process page table
                unmap_page_from_process(page);
                // Page is now preempted - can be freed
                nr_reclaimed++;
            }
        } else if (page_is_file_backed(page)) {
            // File-backed page: just discard if clean
            if (page_is_dirty(page)) {
                // Write back to file first
                writeback_page(page);
            }
            unmap_page_from_process(page);
            nr_reclaimed++;
        }
    }
    
    return nr_reclaimed;
}
 
/**
 * Page fault handler: Restore preempted memory.
 * Called when process accesses swapped-out page.
 */
int handle_page_fault(struct mm_struct *mm, unsigned long address) {
    struct vm_area_struct *vma;
    pte_t *pte;
    struct page *page;
    
    // Find the virtual memory region
    vma = find_vma(mm, address);
    if (!vma) return -EFAULT;
    
    // Get page table entry
    pte = get_pte(mm, address);
    
    if (pte_none(*pte)) {
        // Never allocated - allocate fresh
        return allocate_page(vma, address);
    }
    
    if (pte_is_swap(pte)) {
        // Page was swapped out - restore it
        swp_entry_t entry = pte_to_swp_entry(*pte);
        
        // Read page from swap
        page = read_swap_page(entry);
        if (!page) return -ENOMEM;
        
        // Map into process address space
        set_pte(pte, mk_pte(page, vma->vm_page_prot));
        
        // Free swap slot
        free_swap_slot(entry);
        
        return 0;  // Page fault handled, process can continue
    }
    
    // Other fault types...
    return -EFAULT;
}
 
/**
 * For deadlock recovery, we can preempt memory from a deadlocked process:
 * 1. Swap out its pages to create memory pressure relief
 * 2. The deadlocked process remains blocked (on lock, not memory)
 * 3. Other processes can now proceed
 * 
 * This doesn't break the deadlock directly but may help indirectly
 * if the deadlock involves memory resources.
 */

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from dataclasses import dataclass, field
from typing import List, Dict, Optional, Any
from enum import Enum
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
import copy
 
class OperationType(Enum):
    READ = "read"
    WRITE = "write"
    INSERT = "insert"
    DELETE = "delete"
 
@dataclass
class Operation:
    """A single operation within a transaction."""
    op_type: OperationType
    resource_id: str
    old_value: Optional[Any] = None
    new_value: Optional[Any] = None
 
@dataclass
class Transaction:
    """A transaction that can be preempted via rollback."""
    tx_id: int
    operations: List[Operation] = field(default_factory=list)
    held_locks: List[str] = field(default_factory=list)
    savepoints: Dict[str, int] = field(default_factory=dict)  # name -> op index
    state: str = "active"  # active, committed, aborted
 
class TransactionManager:
    """
    Transaction manager with lock preemption support.
    
    Preempting a lock means:
    1. Roll back all changes made by the transaction
    2. Release all locks held
    3. Mark transaction for retry
    """
    
    def __init__(self, data_store: Dict[str, Any], lock_manager):
        self.data_store = data_store
        self.lock_manager = lock_manager
        self.transactions: Dict[int, Transaction] = {}
        self.next_tx_id = 1
    
    def begin_transaction(self) -> int:
        """Start a new transaction."""
        tx_id = self.next_tx_id
        self.next_tx_id += 1
        self.transactions[tx_id] = Transaction(tx_id=tx_id)
        return tx_id
    
    def read(self, tx_id: int, resource_id: str) -> Any:
        """Read a value within a transaction."""
        tx = self.transactions[tx_id]
        
        # Acquire read lock
        self.lock_manager.acquire_read(tx_id, resource_id)
        tx.held_locks.append(resource_id)
        
        # Log the read
        tx.operations.append(Operation(
            op_type=OperationType.READ,
            resource_id=resource_id,
            old_value=self.data_store.get(resource_id)
        ))
        
        return self.data_store.get(resource_id)
    
    def write(self, tx_id: int, resource_id: str, value: Any):
        """Write a value within a transaction."""
        tx = self.transactions[tx_id]
        
        # Acquire write lock (may block → potential deadlock!)
        self.lock_manager.acquire_write(tx_id, resource_id)
        if resource_id not in tx.held_locks:
            tx.held_locks.append(resource_id)
        
        # Log the write with old value (for rollback)
        old_value = self.data_store.get(resource_id)
        tx.operations.append(Operation(
            op_type=OperationType.WRITE,
            resource_id=resource_id,
            old_value=copy.deepcopy(old_value),
            new_value=copy.deepcopy(value)
        ))
        
        # Apply the write
        self.data_store[resource_id] = value
    
    def preempt_transaction(self, tx_id: int) -> bool:
        """
        Preempt a transaction's locks by rolling it back.
        
        This is the core of lock preemption for deadlock recovery.
        
        Steps:
        1. Undo all operations in reverse order
        2. Release all held locks
        3. Mark transaction for retry
        
        Returns: True if preemption successful
        """
        tx = self.transactions.get(tx_id)
        if not tx or tx.state != "active":
            return False
        
        print(f"Preempting transaction {tx_id}...")
        
        # Step 1: Undo operations in reverse order
        for op in reversed(tx.operations):
            self._undo_operation(op)
        
        # Step 2: Release all locks
        for resource_id in tx.held_locks:
            self.lock_manager.release(tx_id, resource_id)
        tx.held_locks.clear()
        
        # Step 3: Mark for retry
        tx.state = "aborted"
        tx.operations.clear()
        
        print(f"Transaction {tx_id} preempted (rolled back)")
        return True
    
    def _undo_operation(self, op: Operation):
        """Undo a single operation."""
        if op.op_type == OperationType.WRITE:
            # Restore old value
            if op.old_value is None:
                self.data_store.pop(op.resource_id, None)
            else:
                self.data_store[op.resource_id] = op.old_value
            print(f"  Undid write to {op.resource_id}")
            
        elif op.op_type == OperationType.INSERT:
            # Delete the inserted value
            self.data_store.pop(op.resource_id, None)
            print(f"  Undid insert of {op.resource_id}")
            
        elif op.op_type == OperationType.DELETE:
            # Re-insert the deleted value
            self.data_store[op.resource_id] = op.old_value
            print(f"  Undid delete of {op.resource_id}")
        
        # READ operations don't need undo
    
    def commit(self, tx_id: int):
        """Commit a transaction, making changes permanent."""
        tx = self.transactions[tx_id]
        
        # Release all locks
        for resource_id in tx.held_locks:
            self.lock_manager.release(tx_id, resource_id)
        
        tx.held_locks.clear()
        tx.state = "committed"
        print(f"Transaction {tx_id} committed")
    
    def retry_transaction(self, tx_id: int) -> int:
        """
        Retry a preempted transaction with a new ID.
        Application should re-execute the transaction logic.
        """
        old_tx = self.transactions.get(tx_id)
        if old_tx and old_tx.state == "aborted":
            # Create new transaction for retry
            new_tx_id = self.begin_transaction()
            print(f"Retrying transaction {tx_id} as {new_tx_id}")
            return new_tx_id
        return tx_id
 
 
class DeadlockRecoveryViaPreemption:
    """
    Recover from deadlock by preempting locks (rolling back transactions).
    """
    
    def __init__(self, tx_manager: TransactionManager, 
                 detect_deadlock, victim_selector):
        self.tx_manager = tx_manager
        self.detect_deadlock = detect_deadlock
        self.select_victim = victim_selector
    
    def recover(self, deadlocked_tx_ids: List[int]) -> Dict:
        """
        Recover from deadlock by preempting victim transactions.
        """
        result = {
            'preempted': [],
            'retry_ids': {},
            'success': False
        }
        
        while deadlocked_tx_ids:
            # Select victim transaction
            victim = self.select_victim(deadlocked_tx_ids)
            
            # Preempt (rollback) the victim
            success = self.tx_manager.preempt_transaction(victim)
            
            if success:
                result['preempted'].append(victim)
                
                # Prepare retry
                new_id = self.tx_manager.retry_transaction(victim)
                result['retry_ids'][victim] = new_id
            
            # Re-check for deadlock
            deadlocked_tx_ids = self.detect_deadlock()
        
        result['success'] = True
        return result

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#include <atomic>
#include <mutex>
#include <vector>
#include <functional>
#include <memory>
#include <chrono>
 
/**
 * Requirements for safe resource preemption:
 * 
 * 1. CHECKPOINTING: Ability to save resource state
 * 2. ROLLBACK: Ability to restore from checkpoint
 * 3. CLEANUP: Release partially-held resources
 * 4. NOTIFICATION: Inform process of preemption
 * 5. RESTART: Resume execution safely after preemption
 */
 
class PreemptableResource {
public:
    virtual ~PreemptableResource() = default;
    
    // Check if preemption is currently safe
    virtual bool can_preempt() const = 0;
    
    // Save current state for later restoration
    virtual std::unique_ptr<void*> checkpoint() = 0;
    
    // Prepare for preemption (cleanup, notify)
    virtual void prepare_preempt() = 0;
    
    // Execute preemption
    virtual void preempt() = 0;
    
    // Restore from checkpoint (after process regains resource)
    virtual void restore(std::unique_ptr<void*> checkpoint) = 0;
};
 
/**
 * PreemptableTransaction: A transaction that can be safely preempted.
 */
class PreemptableTransaction {
public:
    using OperationLog = std::vector<std::function<void()>>;
    
private:
    std::atomic<bool> active_{true};
    std::atomic<bool> preempt_requested_{false};
    std::mutex log_mutex_;
    OperationLog undo_log_;
    std::vector<std::string> held_resources_;
    
    // Preemption callback
    std::function<void()> on_preempt_;
    
public:
    /**
     * Check if we should yield due to preemption request.
     * Call this at "safe points" in the transaction logic.
     */
    bool should_yield() const {
        return preempt_requested_.load(std::memory_order_acquire);
    }
    
    /**
     * Log an undoable operation.
     * Called before each write operation.
     */
    void log_undo(std::function<void()> undo_func) {
        std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(log_mutex_);
        undo_log_.push_back(std::move(undo_func));
    }
    
    /**
     * Request preemption of this transaction.
     * Sets flag that transaction should check at safe points.
     */
    void request_preempt() {
        preempt_requested_.store(true, std::memory_order_release);
    }
    
    /**
     * Execute rollback and release resources.
     * Called when preemption is actually happening.
     */
    void execute_rollback() {
        std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(log_mutex_);
        
        // Undo in reverse order
        for (auto it = undo_log_.rbegin(); it != undo_log_.rend(); ++it) {
            (*it)();
        }
        undo_log_.clear();
        
        // Release resources
        for (const auto& resource : held_resources_) {
            release_resource(resource);
        }
        held_resources_.clear();
        
        active_.store(false, std::memory_order_release);
        
        // Notify callback
        if (on_preempt_) {
            on_preempt_();
        }
    }
    
    void acquire_resource(const std::string& resource_id) {
        held_resources_.push_back(resource_id);
    }
    
    void release_resource(const std::string& resource_id) {
        // Release to lock manager
    }
    
    void set_preempt_callback(std::function<void()> callback) {
        on_preempt_ = std::move(callback);
    }
};
 
/**
 * Safe preemption pattern with cooperative yielding.
 * 
 * Rather than forcibly preempting, we request preemption and
 * the transaction checks at safe points.
 */
class CooperativePreemption {
public:
    /**
     * Example transaction that cooperates with preemption.
     */
    void example_transaction(PreemptableTransaction& tx, DataStore& store) {
        try {
            // Acquire lock
            tx.acquire_resource("account_123");
            
            // Read current value
            int balance = store.read("account_123");
            
            // === SAFE POINT: Check for preemption ===
            if (tx.should_yield()) {
                throw PreemptionException("Preemption requested");
            }
            
            // Log undo operation BEFORE making change
            tx.log_undo([&store, balance]() {
                store.write("account_123", balance);  // Restore old value
            });
            
            // Make change
            store.write("account_123", balance - 100);
            
            // === SAFE POINT ===  
            if (tx.should_yield()) {
                throw PreemptionException("Preemption requested");
            }
            
            // Acquire second lock (potential deadlock point!)
            tx.acquire_resource("account_456");
            
            int other_balance = store.read("account_456");
            
            tx.log_undo([&store, other_balance]() {
                store.write("account_456", other_balance);
            });
            
            store.write("account_456", other_balance + 100);
            
            // Commit
            // (releases locks, clears undo log)
            
        } catch (const PreemptionException& e) {
            // Rollback is triggered
            tx.execute_rollback();
            
            // Transaction will be retried by caller
            throw;
        }
    }
};
 
class PreemptionException : public std::exception {
    std::string message_;
public:
    explicit PreemptionException(const std::string& msg) : message_(msg) {}
    const char* what() const noexcept override { return message_.c_str(); }
};

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from dataclasses import dataclass
from typing import List, Dict, Set, Tuple
from enum import Enum
 
class PreemptionCostFactor(Enum):
    """Factors contributing to preemption cost."""
    WORK_LOST = "work_lost"           # Amount of work to redo
    ROLLBACK_COMPLEXITY = "rollback"  # Complexity of undo
    CHAIN_LENGTH = "chain"            # Other resources depending on this
    PRIORITY = "priority"             # Priority of holding process
    NON_PREEMPTABLE = "non_preempt"   # Related non-preemptable resources
 
@dataclass
class ResourcePreemptionCandidate:
    """A resource being considered for preemption."""
    resource_id: str
    holder_pid: int
    resource_type: str
    preemption_cost: float
    cost_breakdown: Dict[str, float]
    can_preempt: bool
    reason_if_not: str = ""
 
class PreemptionPlanner:
    """
    Plan which resources to preempt to break deadlock.
    
    Goal: Find minimum-cost set of resources whose preemption
    breaks all cycles in the wait-for graph.
    """
    
    def __init__(self, 
                 resource_info: Dict[str, dict],
                 process_info: Dict[int, dict],
                 wait_for_graph: Dict[int, Set[int]]):
        self.resources = resource_info
        self.processes = process_info
        self.wait_for = wait_for_graph
    
    def plan_preemption(self, 
                        deadlocked_pids: Set[int]) -> List[ResourcePreemptionCandidate]:
        """
        Determine which resources to preempt to break deadlock.
        
        Strategy:
        1. Identify all resources held by deadlocked processes
        2. Evaluate preemption cost for each
        3. Find minimum cost set that breaks all cycles
        """
        # Step 1: Gather candidate resources
        candidates = []
        for pid in deadlocked_pids:
            process = self.processes[pid]
            for resource_id in process.get('held_resources', []):
                candidate = self._evaluate_candidate(resource_id, pid)
                if candidate.can_preempt:
                    candidates.append(candidate)
        
        # Sort by cost (lowest first)
        candidates.sort(key=lambda c: c.preemption_cost)
        
        # Step 2: Greedily select resources until deadlock broken
        selected = []
        remaining_deadlock = set(deadlocked_pids)
        
        for candidate in candidates:
            if not remaining_deadlock:
                break  # Deadlock already broken
            
            # Would preempting this resource help?
            if self._would_break_cycle(candidate, remaining_deadlock):
                selected.append(candidate)
                remaining_deadlock = self._simulate_preemption(
                    candidate, remaining_deadlock
                )
        
        if remaining_deadlock:
            # Couldn't break deadlock with available preemptions
            # Must fall back to process termination
            print(f"Warning: Cannot fully break deadlock via preemption. "
                  f"Remaining: {remaining_deadlock}")
        
        return selected
    
    def _evaluate_candidate(self, resource_id: str, 
                            holder_pid: int) -> ResourcePreemptionCandidate:
        """Evaluate the cost of preempting a specific resource."""
        resource = self.resources.get(resource_id, {})
        process = self.processes.get(holder_pid, {})
        
        cost_breakdown = {}
        
        # Factor 1: Work lost (undo log size)
        undo_log_size = process.get('undo_log_size', 0)
        cost_breakdown['work_lost'] = undo_log_size * 0.1
        
        # Factor 2: Rollback complexity
        num_operations = process.get('operations_count', 0)
        cost_breakdown['rollback'] = num_operations * 0.5
        
        # Factor 3: Chain length (resources depending on this)
        chain_length = len(resource.get('dependent_resources', []))
        cost_breakdown['chain'] = chain_length * 2.0
        
        # Factor 4: Process priority (higher priority = higher cost)
        priority = process.get('priority', 5)
        cost_breakdown['priority'] = priority * 1.0
        
        # Check if actually preemptable
        can_preempt = resource.get('preemptable', False)
        
        # Non-preemptable if holding non-preemptable resources too
        non_preempt_held = [
            r for r in process.get('held_resources', [])
            if not self.resources.get(r, {}).get('preemptable', False)
        ]
        
        if non_preempt_held:
            cost_breakdown['non_preempt'] = float('inf')
            can_preempt = False
            reason = f"Holding non-preemptable: {non_preempt_held}"
        else:
            cost_breakdown['non_preempt'] = 0
            reason = ""
        
        total_cost = sum(cost_breakdown.values())
        
        return ResourcePreemptionCandidate(
            resource_id=resource_id,
            holder_pid=holder_pid,
            resource_type=resource.get('type', 'unknown'),
            preemption_cost=total_cost,
            cost_breakdown=cost_breakdown,
            can_preempt=can_preempt,
            reason_if_not=reason
        )
    
    def _would_break_cycle(self, candidate: ResourcePreemptionCandidate,
                           deadlocked: Set[int]) -> bool:
        """Check if preempting this resource would help break a cycle."""
        # Simplified: if holder is deadlocked and resource is blocking someone
        if candidate.holder_pid not in deadlocked:
            return False
        
        # Check if any deadlocked process is waiting for this resource
        resource_id = candidate.resource_id
        for pid in deadlocked:
            waiting_for = self.processes.get(pid, {}).get('waiting_for', [])
            if resource_id in waiting_for:
                return True
        
        return False
    
    def _simulate_preemption(self, candidate: ResourcePreemptionCandidate,
                              deadlocked: Set[int]) -> Set[int]:
        """Simulate preempting and see who's still deadlocked."""
        # This would re-run cycle detection after simulating release
        # For simplicity, just remove the holder if they'd no longer block
        result = deadlocked.copy()
        
        # If holder releases this resource, can any waiting process proceed?
        waiting_processes = [
            pid for pid in deadlocked
            if candidate.resource_id in 
               self.processes.get(pid, {}).get('waiting_for', [])
        ]
        
        for pid in waiting_processes:
            # If this process was only waiting for this resource, they unblock
            waiting_for = self.processes.get(pid, {}).get('waiting_for', [])
            if len(waiting_for) == 1:
                result.discard(pid)
        
        return result